AUTHOR: Ritesh Rathore, MD
Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) refers to the adverse emetic effects associated with the use of systemic therapies in the treatment of cancer. There are five recognized subtypes:
Drug-induced nausea and vomiting
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TABLE E1 Emetogenic Potential of Commonly Used Oral Antineoplastic Agents
Risk | Frequency of Emesis (%; Without Prophylaxis) | Agent |
---|---|---|
High | >90 | Altretamine |
Procarbazine | ||
Moderate | 30-90 | Cyclophosphamide Crizotinib Olaparib |
Temozolomide | ||
Low | 10-30 | Alectinib Axitinib |
Capecitabine Ceritinib Cobimetinib | ||
Dasatinib | ||
Everolimus Gefitinib Ibrutinib | ||
Imatinib Ixazomib | ||
Lapatinib | ||
Lenalidomide | ||
Nilotinib Palbociclib Panobinostat | ||
Pazopanib | ||
Sorafenib | ||
Sunitinib | ||
Thalidomide | ||
Vemurafenib | ||
Minimal | <10 | Alectinib Busulfan |
Chlorambucil Dabrafenib | ||
Erlotinib | ||
Hydroxyurea Idelalisib | ||
Melphalan | ||
Methotrexate Osimertinib Ruxolitinib | ||
6-Thioguanine Trametinib | ||
Vismodegib |
Modified from Roila F et al: Guideline update for MASCC and ESMO in the prevention of chemotherapy and radiotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: results of the Perugia consensus conference, Ann Oncol 21(suppl 5):232-243, 2010.
It has been demonstrated that three SNPs in 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor (5-HT3R) genes, two alleles of the cytochrome P450 family 2 subfamily D member 6 (CYP2D6) gene, and three SNPs in ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1) gene are associated with the occurrence and severity of CINV.2
The pathophysiology of nausea and vomiting is illustrated in Fig. E1. CINV is likely the result of chemotherapy acting in two places: Directly in the gastrointestinal tract and in the vomiting center of the brain. In both areas, nausea and vomiting are mediated by the actions of certain neurotransmitters, with serotonin, dopamine, and neurokinin-1 being the most important.
Additional workup is not indicated if patients symptoms and the onset of nausea and vomiting fit the typical CINV presentation. If other symptoms or unexpected physical examination findings are present, then other likely causes need to be ruled out with a combination of blood work and CT scan imaging.
Antiemetic Class | Mechanism of Action | Recommended Uses | Level of EvidenceTo Support Use inCancer-RelatedNausea and Vomiting |
---|---|---|---|
Corticosteroid: Dexamethasone | Unknown, possibly reduced prostaglandin activity in the brain | Treatment-related nausea and vomiting Nausea and vomiting secondary to raised intracranial pressure | High |
Vomiting secondary to bowel obstruction | Low | ||
5-HT3 antagonist: Granisetron Ondansetron Palonasetron Dolasetron | Inhibit visceral afferents by blocking binding of peripheral 5-HT to serotonin (type 3) receptors along the vagus nerve in the GI tract | Treatment-related nausea and vomiting Opioid-induced nausea and vomiting Nausea of advanced cancer | High |
NK1 antagonist: Aprepitant Fosaprepitant | Blockade of the binding of substance P to NK1 receptors in the chemotrigger zone of the area postrema | Treatment-related nausea and vomiting | High |
Benzodiazepine: Lorazepam Alprazolam | Presumably due to anxiolytic, sedative and anterograde amnesic effects of these medications centrally Especially useful in delayed or anticipatory nausea as adjuvant agents | Adjuvant support for the management of treatment-related nausea and vomiting, particularly when nausea associated with anxiety | High |
Atypical antipsychotic: Olanzapine | Antipsychotic in the thienobenzodiazepine drug class that blocks multiple neurotransmitters, including: - Dopamine at D1, D2, D3, and D4 brain receptors - Serotonin at 5-HT2a, 5-HT2c, 5-HT3, and 5-HT6 receptors - Catecholamines at alpha-1 adrenergic receptors - Acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors - Histamine at H1 receptors | Adjuvant agent to manage treatment-related nausea and vomiting | Moderate |
Antihistamine: Diphenhydramine Promethazine | Predominantly histamine antagonist in vestibular nucleus and chemotrigger zone Central dopamine and acetylcholine antagonist | Adjuvant, especially when the extra-pyramidal effects of dopamine antagonists are considered problematic | Moderate |
Butyrophenone: Haloperidol Droperidol | Dopaminergic (D2 subtype) receptor antagonists | Adjuvant | Moderate |
Phenothiazine: Prochlorperazine | Dopamine antagonist Histamine antagonist Acetylcholine antagonist | Adjuvant | High |
Dopamine2-antagonist: Metoclopramide | Competitive antagonist at central dopaminergic (D2) receptors Weak competitive antagonist peripherally at GI 5-HT3 receptors (at high dose) 5-HT4 agonist Increased lower esophageal sphincter pressure Enhanced rate of gastric emptying | Adjuvant Gastric stasis Opioid-induced nausea and vomiting Nausea of advanced disease | High |
5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine; GI, gastrointestinal; NK1, neurokinin-1.
From Talley NJ et al: Essentials of internal medicine, ed 4, Chatswood, NSW, 2021, Elsevier Australia.
BOX E1 Management Approach: Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting (CINV)
Antiemetic therapy for CINV should be based on the emetic potential of the chemotherapy regimen being used and should take into account individual patient factors (e.g., sex, age, history of alcohol use, and previous emesis with chemotherapy). Excellent methods for predicting the likelihood of emesis with single chemotherapeutic agents or combination regimens have been developed. All patients receiving chemotherapy with moderate or high emetogenic potential should receive antiemetic prophylaxis for acute (day 1) and delayed (days 2-5) nausea and vomiting. Patients receiving highly emetogenic regimens should receive prophylaxis on day 1 with a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist (preferably palonosetron) plus neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonist plus dexamethasone, followed on days 2-4 by dexamethasone. Olanzapine should be added in patients judged to be at high risk. For moderately emetogenic regimens, treatment with a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist (preferably palonosetron) plus dexamethasone on day 1, followed by dexamethasone on days 2 and 3, is recommended. Patients receiving therapy with low emetic potential should receive dexamethasone (8 mg intravenously or orally); a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist should be added with subsequent courses only if antiemetic control is inadequate. Routine prophylaxis is not necessary for patients receiving agents or regimens of minimal risk. Patients with inadequate control should have intensification of their antiemetic prophylaxis during subsequent treatment cycles. |
From Niederhuber JE: Abeloffs clinical oncology, ed 6, Philadelphia, 2020, Elsevier.
On a 32-point scale, calculated before each cycle of therapy, patients with risk scores ≥16 units are considered at high risk for developing moderate CINV.3
TABLE E3 Antiemetic Agents: Recommended Dosing
Antiemetic Agent | RECOMMENDED DOSE | |
---|---|---|
Acute Emesis (Before Chemotherapy) | Delayed Emesis | |
5-HT3 antagonists | ||
Ondansetron | 0.15 mg/kg or 8 mg IV; 12-16 mg PO | 8 mg PO twice a day × 2-3 days |
Granisetron | 1 mg IV or PO; 10 mg subcutaneous (extended release) | |
Dolasetron | 1.8 mg/kg or 100 mg IV; 100-200 mg PO | |
Palonosetron | 0.25 mg IV or 0.5 mg PO | |
NK1 receptor antagonists | ||
Aprepitant | 125 mg PO | 80 mg PO days 2 and 3 |
Fosaprepitant | 150 mg IV | |
Rolapitant | 180 mg PO | |
Combination 5-HT3/NK1 receptor antagonist | ||
NEPA (palonosetron 0.5 mg/netupitant 300 mg) | 1 tablet PO | |
Multireceptor antagonist | ||
Olanzapine | 10 mg PO | 10 mg PO days 2-4 |
Corticosteroids | ||
Dexamethasone | ||
With NK1 antagonist | 12 mg IV or PO | 8 mg PO for 2-3 days |
Without NK1 antagonist | 8 mg (moderate risk) or 20 mg (high risk) IV or PO | 4-8 mg PO twice a day for 2-3 days |
Other agents | ||
Prochlorperazine | 10 mg PO or IV every 3-4 h as needed | |
Lorazepam | 1-2 mg IV (for anticipatory nausea/vomiting) | |
Dronabinol | 5 mg/m2 PO every 3-4 h as needed |
5-HT3, 5-Hydroxytryptamine 3; NK1, neurokinin 1; IV, intravenous; PO, by mouth.
From Niederhuber JE: Abeloffs clinical oncology, ed 6, Philadelphia, 2020, Elsevier.
TABLE E4 Summary of Recommended Antiemetic Prophylaxis for Patients Receiving Intravenous Chemotherapy
Risk of Emesis | Day 1 (Prechemotherapy) | After Day 1 |
---|---|---|
High (includes cyclophosphamide and doxorubicin) | 5-HT3 receptor antagonist (palonosetron preferred) + NK1 receptor antagonist + dexamethasone + olanzapine (if patient considered high risk) | Dexamethasone days 2-4 + aprepitant days 2-3 (if used on day 1) + olanzapine days 2-4 (high-risk patients) |
Moderate | 5-HT3 receptor antagonist (palonosetron preferred) + dexamethasone | Dexamethasone days 2 and 3 |
Low | Dexamethasone | None |
Minimal | As needed | None |
5-HT3, 5-Hydroxytryptamine 3; NK1, neurokinin 1.
From Niederhuber JE: Abeloffs clinical oncology, ed 6, Philadelphia, 2020, Elsevier.