AHFS Class:

• Dihydropyridines 24:28.08

Generic Name(s):

• NIFEdipine

Nifedipine is a 1,4-dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blocking agent.

Angina

Nifedipine is used in the management of Prinzmetal variant angina and chronic stable angina pectoris. Calcium-channel blocking agents (used alone or in combination with nitrates) are considered the drugs of choice for the management of Prinzmetal variant angina.1100β-Adrenergic blocking agents (β-blockers) are recommended as the anti-ischemic drugs of choice in most patients with chronic stable angina; however, calcium-channel blockers may be substituted or added in patients who do not tolerate or respond adequately to β-blockers.1101 In controlled clinical studies of up to 8 weeks' duration in patients with chronic stable angina, nifedipine reduced the frequency of attacks, allowed a decrease in sublingual nitroglycerin dosage, and increased exercise tolerance. All classes of calcium-channel blockers appear to be equally effective in reducing anginal episodes; however, choice of a specific agent should be individualized since the pharmacologic properties of these drugs differ.1101 The potential risks of short-acting (conventional, immediate-release) nifedipine should be considered.242 (See Cautions.)

Calcium-channel blockers also have been used for the relief of ongoing or recurrent ischemia in patients with unstable angina†; however, a nondihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker (e.g., diltiazem, verapamil) generally is recommended.1100

Concurrent use of nifedipine and a β-blocker may have beneficial effects in some patients with chronic stable angina (e.g., reduction of dihydropyridine-induced tachycardia through β-blockade).1101

Hypertension

Nifedipine is used alone or in combination with other classes of antihypertensive agents in the management of hypertension.126,309,342,344,345,348,351,1200 Because of concerns about potentially serious adverse cardiovascular effects and increased mortality associated with short-acting (conventional, immediate-release) nifedipine (see Cautions),240,241,242,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,266,284,307,344,345,346,347,348,523 only extended-release formulations of the drug are recommended for the management of hypertension.126,264,342,344,348,1200

Calcium-channel blockers (e.g., nifedipine) are considered one of several preferred antihypertensive drugs for the initial management of hypertension according to current evidence-based hypertension guidelines; other preferred options include angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, and thiazide diuretics.501,502,503,504,1200 While there may be individual differences with respect to recommendations for initial drug selection and use in specific patient populations, current evidence indicates that these antihypertensive drug classes all generally produce comparable effects on overall mortality and cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and renal outcomes.501,502,504,1200,1213 (See Uses: Hypertension, in Amlodipine 24:28.08.)

Most patients with hypertension, especially black patients, will require at least 2 antihypertensive drugs to achieve adequate blood pressure control.1200 Calcium-channel blockers may be particularly useful in the management of hypertension in black patients;176,179,181,183,184,192,203,214,215,216,217,218,219,220,223,224,225,381,382,415,416 these patients tend to have greater blood pressure response to calcium-channel blockers and thiazide diuretics than to other antihypertensive drug classes (e.g., ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor antagonists).501,504,1200 However, the combination of an ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin II receptor antagonist with a calcium-channel blocker or thiazide diuretic produces similar blood pressure lowering in black patients as in other racial groups.1200 (See Race under Hypertension: Other Special Considerations for Antihypertensive Therapy, in Uses in Amlodipine 24:28.08.) Use of a calcium-channel blocker also may be beneficial in patients with certain coexisting conditions such as ischemic heart disease (e.g., angina) 171,185,187,192,198,523 and in geriatric patients, including those with isolated systolic hypertension.181,183,220,221,222,227,502,510 (See Uses: Hypertension, in Amlodipine 24:28.08.)

In the Antihypertensive and Lipid-lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT), the long-term cardiovascular morbidity and mortality benefit of a long-acting dihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker (amlodipine), a thiazide-like diuretic (chlorthalidone), and an ACE inhibitor (lisinopril) were compared in a broad population of patients with hypertension at risk of coronary heart disease.381,382,415,416,417,418 Although these antihypertensive agents were comparably effective in providing important cardiovascular benefit, apparent differences in certain secondary outcomes were observed.381,382 Patients receiving the ACE inhibitor experienced higher risks of stroke, combined cardiovascular disease, GI bleeding, and angioedema, while those receiving the calcium-channel blocker were at higher risk of developing heart failure.417,418 The ALLHAT investigators suggested that the observed differences in cardiovascular outcome may be attributable, at least in part, to the greater antihypertensive effect of the calcium-channel blocker compared with that of the ACE inhibitor, especially in women and black patients.417,418 (See Clinical Benefits of Thiazides in Hypertension under Hypertension in Adults: Treatment Benefits, in Uses in the Thiazides General Statement 40:28.20.)

For more detailed information on the role of calcium-channel blockers in the management of hypertension, see Uses: Hypertension, in Amlodipine 24:28.08. For information on overall principles and expert recommendations for treatment of hypertension, see Uses: Hypertension in Adults, in the Thiazides General Statement 40:28.20.

Hypertensive Crises

In the past , when oral therapy was considered preferable to parenteral therapy in selected patients, short-acting (conventional, immediate-release capsules) nifedipine had been used for rapidly reducing blood pressure in patients with hypertensive crises† in whom reduction of blood pressure was considered urgent (hypertensive urgencies) or an emergency (hypertensive emergencies);109,110,111,112,113,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,170,171,172,173,174,192,225,267,268,269,270,271,272,273,274,275,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,285,288,289 however, most clinicians264,283,295,338,339 and the manufacturers284,307,340,341 now question the safety of short-acting nifedipine for this use because of occasional reports of poorly tolerated severe hypotension and the potential adverse cardiovascular consequences (e.g., cerebrovascular ischemia, stroke, myocardial ischemia and infarction, death).119,283,284,285,286,287,288,295,299,300,301,302,303,304,307,308,310 As a result of these and other (see Cautions) concerns and absence of substantial evidence clearly establishing superiority (both in terms of safety and efficacy) of nifedipine for this use, it is recommended that short-acting nifedipine no longer be used for the management of any form of hypertension, including hypertensive crises.283,284,295,307,338,339,340,341

Patients with hypertensive emergencies (i.e., those rare situations requiring immediate blood pressure reduction, although not necessarily to normal ranges, in order to prevent or limit target organ damage) require hospitalization and are treated with an appropriate parenteral antihypertensive agent (e.g., labetalol, esmolol, fenoldopam, nicardipine, sodium nitroprusside).502,542,1200 Hypertensive urgencies (i.e., situations in which there is severe elevation in blood pressure without progressive target organ damage) generally can be managed by intensification or reinstitution (e.g., following noncompliance) of the current antihypertensive regimen and treatment of anxiety if needed.1200 Experts state that there is no need for rapid reduction of blood pressure in such patients and hospitalization or referral to the emergency department also is unnecessary.1200 Excessive falls in blood pressure should be avoided in any hypertensive crisis since they may precipitate renal, cerebral, or coronary ischemia.542,1200

Hypertension During Pregnancy

Antihypertensive therapy is recommended in pregnant women with chronic hypertension who have persistent, severely elevated blood pressure (e.g., systolic blood pressure of 160 mm Hg or higher or diastolic blood pressure of 105 mm Hg or higher); it is less clear whether antihypertensive therapy should be initiated in women with mild to moderate chronic hypertension.388,540 If initiation of antihypertensive therapy is necessary in a pregnant woman, use of labetalol, nifedipine, or methyldopa is recommended by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and other experts.388,540 In women who are already receiving antihypertensive therapy prior to pregnancy, ACOG states there are insufficient data to make recommendations regarding the continuance or discontinuance of such therapy; treatment decisions should be individualized in these situations.388 Alternatively, other experts state that women with hypertension who became pregnant, or are planning to become pregnant, should have their antihypertensive therapy transitioned to methyldopa, nifedipine, and/or labetalol during pregnancy.1200

Nifedipine also has been used orally in the hospital setting for urgent lowering of blood pressure in severely hypertensive pregnant women, including those with preeclampsia†.388,540 However, short-acting (conventional) formulations of nifedipine are not labeled by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for acute reduction of blood pressure; cases of profound hypotension and other serious adverse cardiovascular consequences have been reported with the use of these preparations.242,283,284,295,307,338,339,340,341 (For additional information on the use of antihypertensive drugs in women with preeclampsia, see Uses: Hypertension, in Hydralazine 24:08.20.)

Raynaud's Phenomenon

Nifedipine has been used effectively in the management of Raynaud's phenomenon† and is considered a drug of choice for the management of this condition.144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,296,297,298,305,306 The drug has reduced the frequency, duration, and severity of attacks in patients with this condition.144,145,147,148,151,152,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,297 However, not all patients with this condition respond to nifedipine,144,145,146,151,154,164 and intolerable adverse effects (e.g., headache, flushing, orthostatic hypotension) may limit the usefulness of the drug in some other patients.144,146,147,148,151,158,160,297,305,306 Although most experience with nifedipine in the management of Raynaud's phenomenon had been with short-acting (conventional, immediate-release) formulations of the drug, recent concerns (e.g., risks of serious hypotension and associated cardiovascular consequences) about the safety of short-acting (conventional) nifedipine242,283,284,307 have prompted the manufacturers to warn against use of this preparation in conditions for which safety and efficacy have not been fully established.284,307 (See Cautions.) Therefore, while not studied as extensively as short-acting nifedipine, extended-release nifedipine (e.g., 30-60 mg daily) preferably should be used when the drug is indicated for the management of Raynaud's phenomenon.296,297,305,306 The extended-release preparation of nifedipine appears to be tolerated better than the short-acting preparation in patients with this condition.297,305,306 The principal troublesome adverse effect during long-term therapy in these patients appears to be peripheral (ankle) edema.297

Preterm Labor

Nifedipine has been used in selected patients to inhibit uterine contractions in preterm labor† (tocolysis) and thus prolong gestation when such prolongation of intrauterine life was expected to benefit pregnancy outcome.290,291,292,293,294 Current ACOG guidelines for management of preterm labor state that there is no clear first-line tocolytic agent because of conflicting results regarding efficacy in comparative trials.389 In addition, concerns about the safety of short-acting (conventional) nifedipine (e.g., risks of serious hypotension and associated cardiovascular consequences)242,283,284,307 have prompted the manufacturers to warn against use of this preparation in conditions for which safety and efficacy have not been fully established.284,307 (See Cautions.) However, an analysis of pooled data from a number of randomized, controlled studies suggests that calcium-channel blockers (principally nifedipine) may be more effective than, and preferable to, other agents (e.g., magnesium sulfate, β-adrenergic agonists) when tocolysis is deemed necessary.390 Results of this pooled analysis suggest that calcium-channel blockers are more effective in reducing births within 7 days of initiation of tocolytic treatment and before 34 weeks' gestation and are associated with improved neonatal outcomes (e.g., less neonatal respiratory distress syndrome, intraventricular hemorrhage, necrotizing enterocolitis, jaundice) and a reduced frequency of maternal adverse effects leading to treatment discontinuance compared with other tocolytic agents.390 A number of different dosages and dosage forms of nifedipine were used in these studies, and an optimal dosage regimen for the drug as a tocolytic has not been determined.390

The main benefit currently derived from tocolytic therapy may be to forestall labor and provide time for patients to receive corticosteroids to increase fetal lung maturation and/or to be transferred to other (e.g., tertiary-care) facilities; any other potential benefits of prolonging pregnancy are unclear.290,291,293,294,389,390,419,420,421 For additional information, see Uses: Preterm Labor in Magnesium Sulfate 28:12.92.

Acute Myocardial Infarction

Calcium-channel blocking agents have been used in the early treatment and secondary prevention of acute myocardial infarction (MI)†; although these drugs are effective anti-ischemic agents, they have not demonstrated mortality benefits and therefore are generally used as an alternative to β-blockers.266,527,1100 A review of 28 randomized controlled studies involving 19,000 patients found no benefit with regard to infarct size, rate of reinfarction, or death when calcium-channel blockers were used during the acute or convalescent phase of ST-segment-elevation MI (STEMI).266,527 Calcium-channel blockers generally are used for their anti-ischemic and blood pressure-reducing properties in the MI setting, and only when β-blockers (which have been shown to reduce mortality after MI) are ineffective, not tolerated, or contraindicated.527,702,1100

Current expert guidelines state that a calcium-channel blocker may be used to relieve ischemic symptoms, lower blood pressure, or control rapid ventricular response associated with atrial fibrillation in patients with STEMI who are intolerant to β-blockers.527 A nondihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker (e.g., verapamil or diltiazem) may be used as an alternative to β-blockers for the relief of ongoing or recurring ischemia when β-blocker therapy is inadequate, not tolerated, or contraindicated in patients with non-ST-segment-elevation MI (NSTEMI) who do not have clinically important left ventricular dysfunction, increased risk of cardiogenic shock, or AV block.1100

The use of short-acting (conventional, immediate-release) nifedipine is generally contraindicated in patients with MI because of its negative inotropic effects and the reflex sympathetic activation, tachycardia, and hypotension associated with its use.242,284,307,527,1100 Short-acting nifedipine may be particularly detrimental in patients with hypotension and/or tachycardia since the drug may induce a reduction in coronary perfusion pressure, disproportionate dilatation of coronary arteries adjacent to ischemic areas (“steal” phenomenon), and/or reflex activation of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in an increase in myocardial oxygen demands.352,391 These findings are based on numerous clinical trials, including the Nifedipine Angina Myocardial Infarction Trial (NAMIS),355 the Trial of Early Nifedipine Treatment in Acute Myocardial Infarction (TRENT),356 the Norwegian Nifedipine Multicenter Trial,357 and the Secondary Prevention Reinfarction Israeli Nifedipine Trial (SPRINT).358,359

Administration

Nifedipine is administered orally. The drug also has been administered sublingually† or intrabuccally† (e.g., for rapid reduction of blood pressure). When nifedipine is administered sublingually or intrabuccally, the conventional liquid-filled capsule must be punctured, chewed, and/or squeezed to express the liquid into the mouth.110,112,117,121,123 However, based on pharmacokinetic considerations (see Pharmacokinetics: Absorption), some clinicians recommend that when a relatively rapid response is desired the drug preferably be administered as conventional liquid-filled capsules that are bitten and then swallowed.134,135,170

Nifedipine extended-release tablets should be swallowed intact and should not be chewed, crushed, or broken.126,342 The manufacturer of Adalat^® CC states that the extended-release nifedipine tablets should be taken on an empty stomach.342 Patients should be advised not to become alarmed if they notice a tablet-like substance in their stools; this is normal since the tablet containing the drug is designed to remain intact and slowly release the drug from a nonabsorbable shell during passage through the GI tract.126

Whenever extended-release tablets of nifedipine are dispensed or administered, care should be taken to ensure that the extended-release dosage form actually was prescribed.126,342 The manufacturers recommend that dosage of extended-release nifedipine tablets should be decreased gradually with close clinical supervision when discontinuance of the drug is required.126,342

The manufacturer of Adalat^® CC states that two 30-mg Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets may be interchanged with one 60-mg Adalat^® CC extended-release tablet; however, three 30-mg Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets should not be considered interchangeable with one 90-mg Adalat^® CC extended-release tablet (see Pharmacokinetics: Absorption).342

Concomitant oral administration of 1,4-dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blocking agents (e.g., nifedipine) with grapefruit juice usually should be avoided since potentially clinically important increases in hemodynamic effects may result.284,314,342,371,372,373 (See Grapefruit Juice under Drug Interactions: Drugs and Foods Affecting Hepatic Microsomal Enzymes.)

Extemporaneously Compounded Oral Liquid

Extemporaneously compounded oral liquid formulations of nifedipine have been prepared.98

Standardize 4 Safety

Standardized concentrations for an extemporaneously prepared oral liquid formulation of nifedipine have been established through Standardize 4 Safety (S4S), a national patient safety initiative to reduce medication errors, especially during transitions of care. 99Multidisciplinary expert panels were convened to determine recommended standard concentrations. 99Because recommendations from the S4S panels may differ from the manufacturer's prescribing information, caution is advised when using concentrations that differ from labeling, particularly when using rate information from the label. 99 For additional information on S4S (including updates that may be available), see [Web].99

Dosage

Angina

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) states that, pending further accumulation of data, it seems prudent that conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) capsules of nifedipine, especially at high doses, be used in the management of angina with great caution, if at all.242 (See Cautions.)

If short-acting nifedipine is used for the management of Prinzmetal variant angina or chronic stable angina pectoris, the usual initial adult dosage of the drug as conventional liquid-filled capsules that are swallowed intact is 10 mg 3 times daily.284,307 Alternatively, nifedipine antianginal therapy can be initiated with extended-release tablets at a dosage of 30 or 60 mg once daily.126 Generally, dosage is gradually increased at 7- to 14-day intervals until optimum control of angina is obtained. If symptoms so warrant and the patient's tolerance and response to therapy are assessed frequently, dosage may be increased more rapidly to 90 mg daily in increments of 30 mg/day over a 3-day period using conventional liquid-filled capsules284,307 or after steady state is achieved (usually achieved on the second day of therapy with a given dose) using extended-release tablets.126 In hospitalized patients who are closely monitored, nifedipine dosage may be increased in 10-mg increments using conventional liquid-filled capsules at 4- to 6-hour intervals, as necessary to control pain and arrhythmias caused by ischemia.284,307 Single doses usually should not exceed 30 mg.

The usual adult maintenance dosage of nifedipine as conventional liquid-filled capsules is 10-20 mg 3 times daily. In some patients, especially those with evidence of coronary artery spasm, higher dosages (using conventional liquid-filled capsules or extended-release tablets) and/or more frequent administration (using conventional liquid-filled capsules only ) are necessary. In such patients, the usual maintenance dosage is 20-30 mg 3 or 4 times daily using conventional liquid-filled capsules; rarely, more than 120 mg daily is necessary. Experience with antianginal dosages exceeding 90 mg once daily using the extended-release tablets is limited; therefore, higher dosages using this dosage form should be employed with caution and only when clinically necessary.126

Dosage generally should not exceed 180 mg daily as conventional liquid-filled capsules284 or 120 mg daily as extended-release tablets,126 since the safety and efficacy of higher dosages have not been established. After anginal symptoms are controlled, dosage should be gradually reduced to the lowest level that will maintain relief of symptoms.

In patients whose angina is controlled with conventional liquid-filled capsules of nifedipine alone or in combination with other antianginal agents, extended-release tablets of nifedipine can be substituted for the conventional capsules at the nearest equivalent total daily dose.126 Thus, patients who are receiving a nifedipine dosage of 30 mg 3 times daily as conventional liquid-filled capsules can be switched to a dosage of 90 mg once daily as extended-release tablets.126 When the total daily dose as conventional liquid-filled capsules does not correspond exactly to the strength of a commercially available extended-release tablet, the nearest equivalent daily dose can be substituted;126 the extended-release tablets should not be divided126 in an attempt to exactly match total daily doses of conventional capsules. Subsequent titration to higher or lower dosages may be necessary and should be guided by the patient's clinical response and tolerance.126

Hypertension

Dosage of nifedipine should be adjusted according to the patient's blood pressure response and tolerance.126,342

Usual Dosage

For the management of hypertension in adults, the usual initial dosage of nifedipine as extended-release tablets is 30 or 60 mg once daily.126 Generally, dosage is increased gradually at 7- to 14-day intervals until optimum control of blood pressure is obtained.126,342 If symptoms so warrant and the patient's tolerance and response to therapy are assessed frequently, dosage may be increased more rapidly.126 Steady state usually is achieved during the second day of therapy with a given dose as extended-release tablets.126 The manufacturers state that dosages exceeding 90 mg once daily (Adalat^® CC) or 120 mg once daily (Procardia XL^®) as extended-release tablets are not recommended.126,342 Some experts recommend a usual dosage range of 30-90 mg once daily.1200

If nifedipine is used for the management of hypertension in children†, some experts recommend a usual initial dosage of 0.2-0.5 mg/kg daily, administered as extended-release tablets once daily or in 2 divided doses daily.1150 Dosage may be increased as necessary to a maximum dosage of 3 mg/kg (up to 120 mg), given once daily or in 2 divided doses.1150 Experts state that the drug should be initiated at the low end of the dosage range and the dosage may be increased every 2-4 weeks until blood pressure is controlled, the maximum dosage is reached, or adverse effects occur.1150 For information on overall principles and expert recommendations for treatment of hypertension in pediatric patients, see Uses: Hypertension in Pediatric Patients, in the Thiazides General Statement 40:28.20.

Because of concerns about potential cardiovascular risks associated with conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) capsules of the drug,240,241,242,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,266,284,307,344,345,346,347,348 short-acting preparations of nifedipine are no longer recommended for use in the management of hypertension.242,284,307,344,345

Blood Pressure Monitoring and Treatment Goals

Blood pressure should be monitored regularly (i.e., monthly) during therapy and dosage of the antihypertensive drug adjusted until blood pressure is controlled.1200 If an adequate blood pressure response is not achieved with nifedipine monotherapy, another antihypertensive agent with demonstrated benefit and preferably a complementary mechanism of action (e.g., angiotensin-converting enzyme [ACE] inhibitor, angiotensin II receptor antagonist, thiazide diuretic) may be added; if goal blood pressure is still not achieved with the use of 2 antihypertensive agents, a third drug may be added.1200 (See Uses: Hypertension in Adults, in the Thiazides General Statement 40:28.20.) In patients who develop unacceptable adverse effects with nifedipine, the drug should be discontinued and another antihypertensive agent from a different pharmacologic class should be initiated.1200,1216

The goal of hypertension management and prevention is to achieve and maintain optimal control of blood pressure.1200 However, the optimum blood pressure threshold for initiating antihypertensive drug therapy and specific treatment goals remain controversial.505,506,507,508,515,523,530,1201,1207,1209,1222 While other hypertension guidelines have based target blood pressure goals on age and comorbidities,501,504,536 the 2017 American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA) hypertension guideline incorporates underlying cardiovascular risk into decision making regarding treatment and generally recommends the same target blood pressure (i.e., less than 130/80 mm Hg) in all adults.1200 Many patients will require at least 2 drugs from different pharmacologic classes to achieve this blood pressure goal; the potential benefits of hypertension management and drug cost, adverse effects, and risks associated with the use of multiple antihypertensive drugs also should be considered when deciding a patient's blood pressure treatment goal.1200,1220

For additional information on target levels of blood pressure and on monitoring therapy in the management of hypertension, see Blood Pressure Monitoring and Treatment Goals under Dosage: Hypertension, in Dosage and Administration in the Thiazides General Statement 40:28.20.

While serious adverse reactions requiring discontinuance of nifedipine therapy or dosage adjustments are uncommon,126,284,307,342 concerns about safety and efficacy of calcium-channel blocking agents (mainly conventional [short-acting] preparations of dihydropyridine derivatives) have been raised by findings of several studies.240,241,242,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,266,344,345,346,347,348 Results of a case-control study indicate dose-dependent increases in the risk of myocardial infarction (MI) (by about 60%) in hypertensive patients (with or without diagnosed cardiovascular disease, but excluding MI or heart failure) receiving a short-acting calcium-channel blocking agent (e.g., nifedipine, diltiazem, verapamil) compared with those receiving a diuretic or a β-adrenergic blocking agent (β-blocker).242,244,245,246,247,252,253,254,258,259,261,263 In addition, findings of several pooled analyses of studies indicate an increased risk of mortality (by about 16%) and reinfarction (by about 19%) in patients who have had an MI or in those with stable or unstable angina who were receiving dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blocking agents (mainly conventional [short-acting] preparations of nifedipine) compared with those receiving placebo.240,242,248,255,266 Results of a pooled analysis of 16 studies indicate that the nifedipine-associated mortality may be dose dependent, especially in patients receiving short-acting nifedipine dosages of 80 mg or more daily when compared with those receiving placebo.241,242,248,249,250,251,254

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) concluded from the apparent concordance of findings from observational studies in hypertensive patients and from randomized studies principally in acute MI and unstable angina patients that it seems prudent and consistent with current evidence to recommend that short-acting nifedipine, especially at high doses, be used in the management of hypertension, angina, or MI with great caution, if at all.242 In arriving at this conclusion, the NHLBI recognized the potential biases of observational studies.242 The NHLBI and some clinicians also state that while other calcium-channel blocking agents (e.g., diltiazem, verapamil) also were associated with increased risk of MI in the described case-control study, results of previous well-designed clinical studies indicate that the use of calcium-channel blocking agents was not associated with an increased risk of death; therefore, the adverse effects associated with short-acting nifedipine may not necessarily apply to other calcium-channel blocking agents, including other short-acting dihydropyridines (e.g., isradipine), or to long-acting preparations of nifedipine.241,242,249,354 Findings from the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT), which compared long-term therapy with an ACE inhibitor (lisinopril) or dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blocker (amlodipine) revealed no difference in the primary outcome of combined fatal coronary heart disease or nonfatal MI among these therapies.381,382,415,416

The increased risk of MI and death in patients receiving short-acting calcium-channel blocking agents may be associated with the arrhythmogenic, proischemic, negative inotropic, and/or prohemorrhagic effects of these agents; proischemic effects may result from reflex increases in sympathetic activity or from a reduction of coronary perfusion pressure induced by short-acting calcium-channel blocking agents.242,248,262 However, some clinicians state that while current evidence indicates an increased relative risk of MI associated with calcium-channel blocking agents, the actual increased risk for an individual patient may be low.244,252,258,259,261 Therefore, patients should not discontinue such therapy independently,244,249,253,261 but instead should consult their clinician about possible alternatives based on full evaluation of their medical condition,244,258 since the known risks of uncontrolled hypertension may be far greater than the postulated but unproven hazards associated with calcium-channel blocking agents.247,258

Cardiovascular Effects

Serious adverse reactions requiring discontinuance of nifedipine therapy or dosage adjustment are relatively rare.284 An increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of angina, possibly resulting from hypotension, has occurred rarely during initiation of nifedipine therapy.284 Additional serious adverse effects including MI, congestive heart failure or pulmonary edema, and ventricular arrhythmia or conduction defects have reportedly occurred in 4%, 2%, and less than 0.5% of patients receiving conventional nifedipine capsules, respectively, but these have not been directly attributed to the drug.284 For additional information on potential serious cardiovascular effects associated with nifedipine, see the introductory discussion in Cautions and see also Cautions: Precautions and Contraindications.

Chest pain (nonspecific) has been reported in less than 3% of patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets in clinical trials.126 Adverse cardiovascular effects reported in up to 1% of patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets include substernal chest pain,342 arrhythmia,126 atrial fibrillation,342 bradycardia,342 tachycardia,126,342 cardiac arrest,342 extrasystole,342 hypotension,126,342 postural hypotension,342 syncope,126 increased angina,126 phlebitis,342 and cutaneous angiectases.342

Most of the common adverse reactions to nifedipine result from its vasodilating action on vascular smooth muscle and include dizziness, lightheadedness, giddiness, flushing or heat sensation, and headache, reportedly occurring in up to 25% of patients, and less frequently, hypotension (usually mild to moderate and well tolerated), weakness, peripheral edema, and palpitation.284 The incidence and severity of syncope, peripheral (ankle) edema, and hypotension generally are dose related and occasionally may be obviated by a reduction in dosage.284 In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, transient hypotension occurred in about 2% of patients receiving less than 60 mg daily and in about 5% of patients receiving 120 mg or more daily.284 Nifedipine-induced peripheral edema of the lower extremities usually responds to diuretic therapy.284 The relatively common adverse effects reported with conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules are similar in nature to those reported with extended-release tablets of the drug.126 However, some evidence indicates that the risk of certain adverse effects may be increased with short-acting preparations of the drug, particularly at high doses.240,241,242,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,266 (See the introductory discussion in Cautions.)

Although the hypotensive effect of nifedipine is modest and well tolerated in most patients receiving the drug for angina, excessive and poorly tolerated hypotension occurs occasionally in such patients.126,284,286,307 Such excessive hypotension usually occurs during initial dosage titration or subsequent upward titration of dosage, and may be more likely in patients receiving a β-blocker concomitantly.126,129,284,286,307 Severe hypotension and/or increased fluid requirements also have been reported in patients who were receiving these drugs concomitantly and underwent coronary artery bypass surgery involving high-dose fentanyl anesthesia.126,129,284,307,342 (See Drug Interactions: Fentanyl.) Several cases of profound hypotension, cerebrovascular ischemia or stroke, myocardial ischemia or infarction, and/or death have been reported when conventional short-acting preparations of nifedipine were used for the management of hypertensive crises,119,283,284,288,295,300,302,303,304,307,308 and therefore, the manufacturers currently warn that short-acting preparations should not be used for acute reduction in blood pressure.284,307 (See Hypertensive Crises under Uses: Hypertension.) However, profound hypotension, myocardial ischemia or infarction, and/or death also have been reported occasionally in patients receiving conventional short-acting preparations of the drug for other uses (e.g., angina, pulmonary hypertension).283,286,287,310 The manufacturers also warn that short-acting preparations of nifedipine should not be used for the chronic management of hypertension.284,307

The frequency of nifedipine-induced peripheral edema appears to be dose related and reportedly occurs in 10-30% of patients receiving the drug.126 The edema is localized and probably occurs secondary to vasodilation of dependent arterioles and small blood vessels rather than to left ventricular dysfunction or generalized fluid retention.126,284,307,342 Intolerable adverse effects associated with nifedipine-induced vasodilation (e.g., headache, flushing, orthostatic hypotension) may limit the usefulness of nifedipine in some patients receiving the drug for Raynaud's phenomenon.144,146,147,148,151,158,160,297,305,306 The extended-release preparations of nifedipine appear to be tolerated better than the short-acting preparation in patients with this condition.297,305,306 The principal troublesome adverse effect during long-term therapy in these patients appears to be peripheral (ankle) edema.297

Erythromelalgia has been reported in about 0.5% of patients receiving nifedipine.284,307,331 Characteristic manifestations of erythromelalgia include burning pain, increased skin temperature, and erythema of the extremities, usually the feet and lower legs, and less commonly, the hands.331 Manifestations resolve following discontinuance of the drug.331

Nervous System Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, weakness was reported in 12% of patients, while tremor, nervousness, and mood changes occurred in about 7-8% of patients; fever and chills were reported in up to 2% of patients, and shakiness, jitteriness, disturbed sleep, and difficulty with postural balance occurred occasionally; mental depression and paranoid syndrome were reported rarely. 284 In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, fatigue and asthenia were reported in about 4-6% of patients,126,342 pain occurred in less than 3% of patients,126,342 and paresthesia, vertigo, asthenia, insomnia, nervousness, and somnolence were reported in up to 3% of patients, while migraine,126,342 anxiety,126,342 confusion,342 ataxia,126 depression,126,342 hypertonia,126,342 hypoesthesia,126,342 paroniria,126 fever,126,342 and tremor126 were reported in up to 1% of patients.126,342 Chills occurred in less than 1% of patients.342 For nervous system effects associated with the vasodilating effect of nifedipine, see Cautions: Cardiovascular Effects.

GI Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, nausea and heartburn occurred in 11% of patients, while diarrhea, constipation, cramps, and flatulence were reported occasionally, and gingival hyperplasia occurred rarely.284 In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, nausea and constipation were reported in about 2-3 and about 1-3%, respectively, while abdominal pain, diarrhea, dry mouth, dyspepsia, and flatulence occurred in less than 3% of patients,126,342 and dysphagia,342 eructation,126,342 gastroesophageal reflux,126 esophagitis,342 vomiting,126,342 melena,126 GI hemorrhage,342 gum hemorrhage,342 gum hyperplasia,126 gum disorder,342 unspecified GI disorder,342 and taste perversion126 were reported in up to 1% of patients. GI irritation and GI bleeding have been reported in less than 1% of patients receiving Procardia XL^® extended-release nifedipine tablets in open-label trials and during post-marketing experience, although a causal relationship to the drug has not been established.126

Symptoms of GI obstruction have occurred in several patients with a history of GI strictures who were receiving extended-release tablets of the drug.126 (See Cautions: Precautions and Contraindications.) GI obstruction also has occurred in at least one patient with no preexisting abnormality who was receiving conventional capsules of the drug concomitantly with diltiazem; it was suggested that obstruction in this patient may have resulted from a pharmacologic effect on intestinal smooth muscle.235

Dermatologic and Sensitivity Reactions

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, dermatitis, pruritus, urticaria, and sweating have been reported occasionally, 284 while angioedema (principally oropharyngeal edema and occasionally breathing difficulty) occurred in less than 0.5% of patients.284,307 Exfoliative dermatitis, exfoliative or bullous skin reactions (including erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis), and photosensitivity reactions have been reported rarely.284

In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, rash and pruritus have been reported in up to 3% of patients,126,342 while angioedema,342 allergic reaction,342 cellulitis,342 facial edema,126,342 periorbital edema,126 alopecia,126,342 sweating,126,342 urticaria,126 photosensitivity reactions,342 and petechial rash342 were reported in up to 1% of patients.

Anaphylactic reactions have been reported rarely in patients receiving nifedipine.342

Respiratory Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, dyspnea, cough, wheezing, nasal congestion, and sore throat occurred in 6% of patients, while284 chest congestion and shortness of breath have been reported in up to 2% of patients.284

In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, dyspnea, epistaxis, and rhinitis were reported in up to 3% of patients, 126,342 while cough,126,342 pharyngitis,342 sinusitis,126 upper respiratory tract infection,126 respiratory disorder,126 rales,342 and stridor342 were reported in up to 1% of patients.

Musculoskeletal Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, muscle cramps occurred in 8% of patients, while musculoskeletal complaints of inflammation and joint stiffness have been reported occasionally, and myalgia and arthritis with increased antinuclear antibodies (ANA) have been reported rarely.284

In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, arthralgia,126,342 leg pain,342 and leg cramps126,342 occurred in up to 3% of patients, while myalgia,126,342 arthritis,342 joint disorder,342 myasthenia,342 back pain,126 neck pain,342 and gout126 occurred in up to 1% of patients.

Genitourinary Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, sexual difficulty has been reported occasionally, while gynecomastia, nocturia, and polyuria have been reported rarely.284

In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, impotence,126,342 polyuria,126,342 and urinary frequency342 have been reported in up to 3% of patients, while decreased libido,126,342 breast pain,126 pelvic pain,342 dysuria,126,342 hematuria,126 and nocturia126,342 occurred in up to 1% of patients, and renal calculi, urogenital disorder, and breast engorgement were reported in less than 1% of patients.342 Gynecomastia has been reported in less than 1% of patients receiving Procardia XL^® extended-release nifedipine tablets in open-label trials and during postmarketing experience, although a causal relationship to the drug has not been established.126

Hepatic Effects

Abnormal laboratory test results including mild to moderately increased serum concentrations of alkaline phosphatase, LDH, creatine kinase (CK, creatine phosphokinase, CPK), AST (SGOT), and ALT (SGPT) have been reported rarely in patients receiving nifedipine.126,284,342 Although a definite causal relationship of these laboratory test results to the drug has not been established, the relationship has been considered probable in several cases. 126,284,342 In most cases, the laboratory test abnormalities were not associated with clinical symptoms; however, cholestasis (with or without jaundice) has been reported.126,284,342 Small increases (about 5%) in mean alkaline phosphatase concentrations have been reported in patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets; however, these increases were clinically asymptomatic, isolated incidents that rarely resulted in values outside the normal range.126 342 Increased γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT, γ-glutamyltranspeptidase, GGTP) concentrations have been reported in less than 1% of patients receiving Adalat^® CC extended-release nifedipine tablets.342 Allergic hepatitis has occurred rarely.126,284,342

Renal Effects

In patients with preexisting chronic renal insufficiency receiving nifedipine, reversible increases in blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine concentrations have been reported rarely.126,284,342 Although a definite causal relationship of these laboratory test results to the drug has not been established, the relationship has been considered probable in several cases.126,284,342

Ocular and Otic Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, blurred vision has been reported occasionally,284 while transient blindness at peak serum nifedipine concentrations and transient unilateral loss of vision have been reported rarely.284

In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, abnormal lacrimation126 and vision abnormalities126,342 have been reported in up to 1% of patients, while amblyopia, conjunctivitis, diplopia, eye disorder, and ocular hemorrhage have been reported in less than 1% of patients.342

Tinnitus has been reported in up to 1% of patients receiving nifedipine.342

Hematologic Effects

In patients receiving conventional liquid-filled (short-acting) nifedipine capsules, thrombocytopenia, anemia, leukopenia, and purpura have been reported rarely.284 In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, purpura occurred in up to 1% of patients,126,342 and eosinophilia and lymphadenopathy occurred in less than 1% of patients.342 Positive antiglobulin (Coombs') test results, with or without hemolytic anemia, have been reported in patients receiving nifedipine, but a causal relationship to the drug has not been established.126,284,307,342

Like other calcium-channel blocking agents, nifedipine decreases platelet aggregation in vitro.126,284,342 A moderate decrease in platelet aggregation and increases in bleeding time, believed to be related to inhibition of calcium transport across the platelet membrane, have been reported in patients receiving nifedipine in a limited number of clinical studies; however, these findings were not considered to be clinically important.126,284,342

Metabolic Effects

Weight gain has been reported in up to 1% of patients receiving Procardia XL^® extended-release nifedipine tablets,126 while weight loss has been reported in less than 1% of patients receiving Adalat^® CC extended-release nifedipine tablets.342

Other Adverse Effects

In patients receiving extended-release nifedipine tablets, hot flushes (flashes),126 rigors,126 and malaise126,342 were reported in up to 1% of patients in clinical trials.

Precautions and Contraindications

Some findings concerning possible risks of calcium-channel blocking agents have raised concerns about the safety and efficacy of these agents (mainly conventional [short-acting] preparations of nifedipine).240,241,242,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,266 However, findings with amlodipine in the ALLHAT study have shown a beneficial effect of dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blockers on fatal coronary heart disease and nonfatal MI in patients treated with the drug for hypertension.381,382,415,416

Nifedipine shares the toxic potentials of the calcium-channel blocking agents, and the usual precautions of these agents should be observed.

Because nifedipine decreases peripheral vascular resistance and occasionally causes excessive and poorly tolerated hypotension, blood pressure should be monitored carefully, especially during initiation of therapy and titration or upward adjustment of dosage. In addition, the manufacturers warn that the frequency, duration, and severity of angina may increase during initiation of therapy or upward adjustment of dosage.

Nifedipine should be used with caution in patients with congestive heart failure or aortic stenosis, especially in those receiving concomitant β-blockers, because nifedipine may precipitate or worsen heart failure in these patients. Peripheral edema occurring during the course of nifedipine therapy should be investigated, especially in patients with congestive heart failure, since it may indicate deterioration in left ventricular function induced by the drug.

Patients with acute stroke or acute MI may be at particular risk for the negative cardiovascular effects (both direct and reflex) of rapid blood pressure reduction,283,284,286,307 and the manufacturers warn that short-acting nifedipine should not be used during the first 1-2 weeks after acute MI.284,307 Preexisting hypovolemia or recent antihypertensive therapy may increase the risk of severe hypotension119,283,284,288,307 as may repeated doses of nifedipine.119 In patients with coronary artery disease and/or myocardial ischemia, reflex sympathetic activity with resultant increases in myocardial contractility, heart rate, and workload may aggravate preexisting myocardial ischemia.283 The manufacturers warn that short-acting nifedipine should be avoided in patients with acute coronary syndrome when MI may be imminent.284,307 When nifedipine therapy is initiated in patients with angina, they should be warned that the drug may cause increased angina, especially if β-blocker therapy is withdrawn abruptly when nifedipine therapy is being initiated. (See Drug Interactions: β-Adrenergic Blocking Agents.)

As with other nondeformable material, extended-release nifedipine tablets should be used with caution in patients with underlying severe GI narrowing (pathologic or iatrogenic) since obstruction may occur.126

Nifedipine is contraindicated in patients with known hypersensitivity to the drug.126,284,342

Pediatric Precautions

Although safety and efficacy remain to be fully established in children younger than 18 years of age,126,284 some experts have recommended pediatric dosages for hypertension based on clinical experience.1150 For information on overall principles and expert recommendations for treatment of hypertension in pediatric patients, see Uses: Hypertension in Pediatric Patients, in the Thiazides General Statement 40:28.20.

Geriatric Precautions

Although a prolonged elimination half-life and an increase in peak plasma concentration and area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) have been observed in pharmacokinetic studies in small numbers of patients (see Pharmacokinetics: Elimination), clinical studies of nifedipine did not include sufficient numbers of patients 65 years of age and older to determine whether geriatric patients respond differently than younger adults.284,342 While other clinical experience generally has not revealed age-related differences in response or tolerance, drug dosage generally should be titrated carefully in geriatric patients, usually initiating therapy at the low end of the dosage range and adjusting dosage as necessary based on patient response.284,342 The greater frequency of decreased hepatic, renal, and/or cardiac function and of concomitant disease and drug therapy observed in the elderly also should be considered.284,342

Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity

In vivo studies using nifedipine have not revealed evidence of mutagenicity.126,284,342 No evidence of carcinogenicity was observed in rats receiving oral nifedipine for 2 years.126,284,342

Pregnancy, Fertility, and Lactation

Pregnancy

Nifedipine has been shown to be teratogenic in rats and rabbits.126,284 Digital anomalies similar to those reported with phenytoin also have been reported in the offspring of animals receiving nifedipine or other dihydropyridines; these anomalies may occur secondary to compromised uterine blood flow.126,284,307 Nifedipine administration in rats, mice, rabbits, and monkeys also has been associated with a variety of other embryotoxic, placentotoxic, and fetotoxic effects, including stunted fetuses (rats, mice, and rabbits), rib deformities (mice), cleft palate (mice), small placentas and underdeveloped chorionic villi (monkeys), embryonic and fetal deaths (rats, mice, and rabbits), and prolonged pregnancy/decreased neonatal survival (rats; not evaluated in other species).126,284,307,342 The dosages (on a mg/kg basis) of nifedipine associated with teratogenic, embryotoxic, or fetotoxic effects in animals were higher (3.5-42 times) than the maximum recommended human dosage (120 mg daily);126,284 however, such dosages were within one order of magnitude of the maximum recommended human dosage.126,284,342 The dosages of nifedipine associated with placentotoxic effects in monkeys were equivalent to or lower than the maximum recommended human dosage on a mg/m² basis.126,284 There are no adequate and well-controlled studies using nifedipine in pregnant women, and the drug should be used during pregnancy only when the potential benefits justify the possible risks to the fetus.126,284,342

Fertility

Nifedipine caused decreased fertility when given to rats prior to mating at a dosage approximately 30 times the maximum recommended human dosage.126,284,342 A reversible reduction in the ability of human sperm to bind to and fertilize an ovum in vitro has been reported in a limited number of infertile men who were receiving usual dosages of nifedipine when the sperm was obtained.126,284,307,342

Lactation

Nifedipine is distributed into milk.165,342 In one lactating woman who received 10, 20, and 30 mg of the drug every 8 hours as conventional capsules, peak milk concentrations of nifedipine occurred within 1 hour after a dose and ranged from about 13-53 ng/mL; the drug generally was not detectable during the hour prior to a dose.165 Because of the potential for serious adverse reactions to nifedipine in nursing infants, a decision should be made whether to discontinue nursing or the drug, taking into account the importance of the drug to the woman.342

Drugs and Foods Affecting Hepatic Microsomal Enzymes

Metabolism of nifedipine is mediated by the cytochrome P-450 (CYP) microsomal enzyme system (principally the 3A isoenzyme) and concomitant use of nifedipine with inhibitors or inducers of CYP3A4 may be associated with altered nifedipine exposure resulting in favorable or adverse effects.342 In addition, in vitro and in vivo data indicate that nifedipine may inhibit metabolism of drugs that are substrates of CYP3A, thereby increasing exposure of other drugs.342 Nifedipine does not appear to affect the metabolism of CYP2D6 substrates. 342

Quinidine

Quinidine appears to be a substrate of the CYP isoenzyme system and has been shown to inhibit CYP3A in vitro.342 397 In a multiple-dose study in healthy individuals, concomitant use of quinidine sulfate (200 mg 3 times daily) and nifedipine (20 mg 3 times daily) increased the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) and peak plasma concentration values of nifedipine 2.3 and 1.37 times, respectively.342 Heart rate during the initial interval following drug administration increased by up to 17.9 beats per minute.342 Heart rate should be monitored and nifedipine dosage adjusted as needed in patients receiving concomitant therapy with quinidine and nifedipine.342

Although exposure to quinidine was not substantially affected by nifedipine in the previous study, nifedipine may decrease serum quinidine concentrations in some patients.284,307,332,333,334,335,336,337,396 397 Reductions or increases in serum quinidine concentrations occasionally have been observed following initiation or discontinuance, respectively, of nifedipine.336,337 Such changes can be substantial and may manifest as therapeutic resistance to usual quinidine dosages during concomitant therapy and/or altered ECGs (e.g., prolongation in corrected QT interval following discontinuance of nifedipine).333,334,335,337 While it had been postulated that alterations in quinidine pharmacokinetics during concomitant nifedipine therapy may have resulted from changes in hemodynamics induced by the latter drug (e.g., reduced peripheral vascular resistance with resultantly increased quinidine volume of distribution) in some patients (e.g., those with left ventricular dysfunction),333,334,335,337 subsequent study failed to confirm left ventricular dysfunction as a predictor of this interaction.334,336 Therefore, the mechanism of this interaction remains to be established, and possible identification of patients at risk requires further study.334,336 The possibility of this interaction should be considered in any patient exhibiting unpredictably low serum quinidine concentrations during concomitant nifedipine therapy.334,336 Serum quinidine concentrations should be monitored whenever nifedipine is initiated or discontinued in patients maintained on the antiarrhythmic, and quinidine dosage adjusted accordingly.333,334,335,336,337

Verapamil

Verapamil, an inhibitor of the isoenzyme CYP3A, may inhibit the metabolism of nifedipine.342 In patients receiving concomitant therapy with verapamil and nifedipine, blood pressure should be monitored, and nifedipine dosage reduction should be considered.342

Diltiazem

Since metabolism of diltiazem also is mediated principally by the CYP3A isoenzyme, diltiazem may competitively inhibit CYP3A4-dependent metabolism of other drugs (e.g., nifedipine).399 Administration of diltiazem 30- or 90-mg doses 3 times daily followed by a single 20-mg dose of nifedipine in healthy individuals increased nifedipine AUC values by 2.2 or 3.1 times, respectively, and peak plasma nifedipine concentrations by 2 or 1.7 times, respectively.342

Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists

Nifedipine has been shown to inhibit the formation of oxidized metabolites of irbesartan in vitro; however, concomitant nifedipine therapy had no effect on irbesartan pharmacokinetics in clinical studies.342

In addition, since candesartan is not substantially metabolized by the CYP isoenzyme system, no substantial drug interaction has been reported in individuals receiving nifedipine concomitantly with candesartan.342

Antifungal Agents

Concomitant use of nifedipine with ketoconazole, itraconazole, or fluconazole may affect the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine, possibly secondary to the inhibition of the CYP3A isoenzyme, and increased exposure of nifedipine may occur.342 Blood pressure should be monitored, and a decrease in nifedipine dosage should be considered.342

Antiretroviral Agents

Concomitant use of nifedipine with antiretroviral agents (HIV protease inhibitors [e.g., amprenavir, atazanavir, fosamprenavir, indinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir] and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors [e.g., delavirdine]) may affect the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine, possibly secondary to the inhibition of the CYP3A isoenzyme, and may result in decreased nifedipine metabolism and increased nifedipine exposure.342 Caution is advised if nifedipine is administered concomitantly with these antiretroviral agents; patients should be monitored carefully.342

Antituberculosis Agents

Rifamycin derivatives (e.g., rifampin, rifabutin) can induce certain cytochrome P-450 liver enzymes (e.g., CYP3A isoenzyme) responsible for the metabolism of nifedipine.342,401 Concomitant use of these rifamycin derivatives and nifedipine may result in decreased plasma concentrations of nifedipine.342,401 In healthy individuals, concomitant use of oral rifampin (600 mg daily) and oral nifedipine (20 mcg/kg) or IV nifedipine resulted in an 87 or 30% decrease in nifedipine exposure, respectively.342 Adjustment of nifedipine dosage may be needed in patients receiving nifedipine concomitantly with rifamycin derivatives.342

Quinupristin and Dalfopristin

Concomitant use of nifedipine with quinupristin and dalfopristin may affect the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine, possibly secondary to the inhibition of the isoenzyme CYP3A. 342,378 In healthy individuals, concomitant administration of repeated oral doses of nifedipine with IV quinupristin and dalfopristin increased the median peak plasma concentration and the AUC of nifedipine by 18 and 44%, respectively.342,378 In patients receiving nifedipine concomitantly with quinupristin and dalfopristin, blood pressure should be monitored and nifedipine dosage reduced if needed.342

Erythromycin

Concomitant use of erythromycin (an inhibitor of the CYP3A4 isoenzyme) and nifedipine may result in inhibition of the metabolism of nifedipine and increased nifedipine exposure.342 Blood pressure should be monitored and nifedipine dosage reduced if necessary in patients in whom erythromycin is used concomitantly with nifedipine.342

Histamine H2-Receptor Antagonists

Concomitant use of nifedipine (single 10-mg doses and 40-60 mg daily) with cimetidine (up to 1 g daily) in healthy individuals increased peak plasma nifedipine concentrations by approximately 60-102% and AUC of nifedipine by approximately 52-101%; plasma clearance of nifedipine was decreased by approximately 40%.115,125,284,342 Increases in the effect of nifedipine on blood pressure also have been observed in hypertensive patients receiving concomitant therapy with cimetidine (1 g daily) and nifedipine (10 mg daily).342 Peak plasma concentrations and AUCs of nifedipine also have increased with concomitant nifedipine and ranitidine therapy, but to a lesser degree than with cimetidine.115,116,125,284 Although the precise mechanism of these interactions is not known,115 cimetidine-induced inhibition of the cytochrome P-450 mixed-function oxidase system (the enzyme system that is probably responsible for the first-pass metabolism of nifedipine) may play a role.116,284 Pending further accumulation of data, cautious dosage titration of nifedipine is recommended in patients receiving cimetidine; a reduction in nifedipine dosage may be necessary in some patients previously stabilized on the drug when cimetidine therapy is initiated.115,125,284,342

Since ranitidine interacts with the hepatic cytochrome P-450 (microsomal) enzyme system differently than does cimetidine,402,403,404,405,406,407 ranitidine appears to only minimally inhibit hepatic metabolism of some drugs.402,403,408 Results of several studies indicate that concomitant use of ranitidine with nifedipine did not affect exposure of nifedipine and no effects on blood pressure or heart rate have been observed when these drugs were used concomitantly in healthy individuals or hypertensive patients.342

Anticonvulsant Agents

Concomitant use of phenytoin with nifedipine may affect the pharmacokinetics of nifedipine.342 Phenytoin is an inducer of the CYP3A4 isoenzyme and may cause decreased nifedipine exposure.342 Concomitant use of nifedipine (as a 10-mg capsule or a 60-mg extended-release tablet) with phenytoin decreased (by about 70%) the AUC and peak plasma concentrations of nifedipine.342 Phenytoin toxicity has occurred within 4 weeks after initiating nifedipine in a patient stabilized on phenytoin.166,167 Manifestations of phenytoin toxicity (e.g., headaches, nystagmus, tremors, slurred speech, ataxia, mental depression) resolved and plasma concentrations of the drug decreased within 2 weeks after discontinuance of nifedipine.166,167 While the mechanism of this interaction has not been elucidated, it was suggested that nifedipine may have reduced the metabolism of phenytoin.166

Phenytoin toxicity also reportedly has occurred in at least one patient with subarachnoid hemorrhage receiving nimodipine, another 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker.168 Whether this effect represented an actual drug interaction between phenytoin and nimodipine has not been determined to date. However, most patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage receiving nimodipine also received concomitant therapy with phenytoin or barbiturates reportedly with no apparent evidence of drug interactions.169

Pending further accumulation of data, patients and plasma phenytoin concentrations should be monitored carefully whenever therapy with a 1,4-dihydropyridine calcium-channel blocker is initiated or withdrawn from a patient receiving phenytoin.166 Blood pressure should be monitored and nifedipine dosage adjusted as needed in patients receiving concomitant nifedipine and phenytoin therapy.342

Phenobarbital and carbamazepine also may decrease exposure to nifedipine by inducing the CYP3A isoenzyme.342 In patients receiving nifedipine concomitantly with phenobarbital or carbamazepine, adjustment of nifedipine dosage may be needed.342 Conversely, nifedipine exposure may be increased in patients receiving valproic acid concomitantly with nifedipine; blood pressure should be monitored, and a reduction in nifedipine dosage should be considered in these patients.342

Immunosuppressive Agents

Because nifedipine may inhibit metabolism of tacrolimus,342 a substrate of CYP3A4,412 concomitant use of nifedipine and tacrolimus may result in increased tacrolimus exposure.342 In patients who underwent transplantation and received such concomitant therapy, tacrolimus dosage reductions of 26-38% were required;342 tacrolimus blood concentrations should be monitored, and a reduction in tacrolimus dosage should be considered in these patients.342

Although sirolimus is a substrate for the isoenzyme 3A4, 413,414 no clinically important pharmacokinetic interactions were observed in patients receiving nifedipine (a single 60-mg dose) concomitantly with oral sirolimus (a single 10-mg dose).342

Dolasetron

Although hydrodolasetron (the main active metabolite of dolasetron) is extensively metabolized, principally via the CYP system, including the 2D6 and 3A4 isoenzymes,409,410,411 concomitant use of IV or oral dolasetron with nifedipine did not alter the clearance of the metabolite.342

Other Drugs Affecting Hepatic Microsomal Enzymes

Ethanol can increase the oral bioavailability of nifedipine, possibly via inhibition of hepatic cytochrome P-450 microsomal metabolism.236 In one study in healthy adults, concomitant administration of ethanol with a single 20-mg oral dose of nifedipine capsules resulted in a 54% increase in the AUC of nifedipine.236

Nefazodone, an inhibitor of the CYP3A isoenzyme, may inhibit the metabolism of nifedipine and increase nifedipine exposure; blood pressure should be monitored, and a reduction of nifedipine dosage should be considered in patients receiving nefazodone concomitantly with nifedipine.342

St. John's wort may decrease nifedipine exposure by inducing the CYP3A4 isoenzyme.342 Adjustment of nifedipine dosage may be necessary in patients receiving nifedipine concomitantly with St. John's wort.342

Grapefruit Juice

Concomitant oral administration of grapefruit juice with nifedipine311,314,324 has been reported to increase bioavailability of the drug.284,311,314,323,324,342,371,372,373 Peak plasma concentrations and AUC values of nifedipine have been reported to increase by approximately twofold (with no change in elimination half-life) when the drug is administered with grapefruit juice.284,342 The interaction between grapefruit juice and the oral bioavailability of some 1,4-dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blocking agents appears to result from inhibition, probably prehepatic,311,315,316,317,318,319,320,321,322,323,371 of the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system by some constituent(s) in the juice.284,312,313,314,315,316,317,318,319,320,321,322,323,325,326,327,328,329,330 Following oral administration of nifedipine,311,314,324 such prehepatic inhibition of drug metabolism by grapefruit juice appears mainly to involve the CYP3A4 isoenzyme,284 principally within the wall of the small intestine (e.g., in the jejunum), thus increasing systemic availability of the drug. (See Grapefruit Juice under Drug Interactions: Drugs and Foods Affecting Hepatic Microsomal Enzymes, in Cyclosporine 92:44.) Concomitant oral administration of grapefruit juice and nifedipine should be avoided.284,342 Consumption of grapefruit juice should be discontinued at least 3 days prior to initiating nifedipine therapy.342

Beta-Adrenergic Blocking Agents

Although concomitant therapy usually is well tolerated, the risk of severe hypotension, exacerbation of angina, congestive heart failure, and arrhythmia may be increased when nifedipine is used concomitantly with a β-adrenergic blocking agent (β-blocker) (e.g., propranolol, timolol), as compared with nifedipine alone.126,284,342 One manufacturer states that clinical monitoring is recommended in patients receiving nifedipine concomitantly with a β-blocker, and adjustment of nifedipine dosage should be considered.342 Exacerbation of anginal pain also has been observed when β-blocker therapy was being withdrawn concurrently with initiation of nifedipine therapy; gradual reduction of β-blocker dosage instead of abrupt withdrawal may minimize the risk of this effect.126,284,342

Fentanyl

Severe hypotension has occurred during surgery in patients receiving nifedipine, a β-blocker, and fentanyl concomitantly.126,284,342 The manufacturers recommend temporarily withholding nifedipine for at least 36 hours before surgery in which use of high-dose fentanyl is contemplated, if the patient's condition permits.126,284,342

Digoxin

Most evidence indicates that nifedipine does not substantially affect the pharmacokinetics of digoxin when the drugs are administered concomitantly;101,102,103,104,105 however, some data suggest that serum digoxin concentrations may increase by about 15-45% during concomitant therapy.106,107,126 Further evaluation of this potential interaction is needed.101,102,103,104,105,106,107 Since there have been isolated reports of increased serum digoxin concentrations during concomitant administration, serum digoxin concentrations should be monitored when nifedipine therapy is initiated or discontinued or dosage of nifedipine is adjusted in patients receiving digoxin.126,284,307,342 Patients receiving the drugs concomitantly should be monitored for signs and symptoms of digoxin toxicity and dosage of the cardiac glycoside reduced if necessary.101,106,126,284,307

Antidiabetic Agents

Since nifedipine may produce hyperglycemia which may lead to loss of glycemic control, glucose concentrations should be carefully monitored and adjustment of nifedipine dosage should be considered in patients receiving concomitant therapy with nifedipine and acarbose.342

Nifedipine appears to enhance absorption of metformin.342 In healthy individuals, concomitant use of nifedipine with metformin was associated with 20 and 9% increases in peak plasma concentrations and AUC of metformin, respectively.342

Omeprazole

Administration of omeprazole 20 mg daily for 8 days followed by a single 10-mg dose of nifedipine in healthy individuals increased AUC of nifedipine by 26% and decreased peak plasma concentrations of nifedipine by 13% when compared with placebo followed by a single 10-mg dose of nifedipine.342 Concomitant use of omeprazole and nifedipine did not alter the effects of nifedipine on blood pressure or heart rate.342 The effect of omeprazole on nifedipine pharmacokinetics is unlikely to be clinically important.342

Hypotensive Agents

Concomitant administration of nifedipine with hypotensive agents (e.g., methyldopa, hydralazine, captopril, doxazosin) may increase the incidence of severe hypotension. When nifedipine is added to an existing antihypertensive therapy regimen, the patient should be observed closely for severe hypotension, especially during initial titration or upward adjustment of nifedipine dosage.342,400

Attenuation of the tachycardic effect of nifedipine has been observed in patients receiving concomitant benazepril.342

Anticoagulants

Increased prothrombin time has been reported rarely in patients receiving concomitant therapy with nifedipine and coumarin anticoagulants;342 however, a causal relationship to nifedipine has not been established.342

Platelet-aggregation Inhibitors

No clinically important interactions have been reported in patients receiving nifedipine concomitantly with clopidogrel or tirofiban.342

Other Drugs

The manufacturer of Adalat^® CC extended-release nifedipine tablets states that clinical experience is insufficient to recommend concomitant use of nifedipine with flecainide.342

Acute Toxicity

Experience with acute overdosage of nifedipine is limited.126,284,307,342 Generally, overdosage with the drug would be expected to produce toxic effects that are extensions of the usual adverse effects of the drug, including pronounced hypotension.126,284,307,342 If pronounced hypotension occurs, symptomatic and supportive care should be initiated, including active cardiovascular support that includes monitoring of cardiovascular and respiratory function, elevation of the extremities, and judicious use of parenteral calcium salts, vasopressors, and fluids.126,284,307,342 Other symptoms associated with severe nifedipine overdosage include loss of consciousness, heart rhythm disturbances, metabolic acidosis, hypoxia, and cardiogenic shock with pulmonary edema.342 Clearance of nifedipine would be expected to be prolonged in patients with impaired hepatic function,126,284,342 since the drug is metabolized in the liver.342 Because nifedipine is highly protein bound, hemodialysis is unlikely to promote elimination of the drug;126,284,307,342 however, plasmapheresis may prove beneficial.284,307,342

In a young man who intentionally ingested 4.8 g of extended-release nifedipine tablets, the principal manifestations of overdosage initially were dizziness, palpitations, flushing, and nervousness.126,342 Nausea, vomiting, and generalized edema developed within several hours following ingestion of the drug;126,342 however, no substantial hypotension developed approximately 18 hours after ingestion.126,342 Mild, transient elevation of serum creatinine and modest elevations in serum LDH and creatine kinase (CK, creatine phosphokinase, CPK) were observed, but serum AST was normal.126,342 The patient's vital signs remained stable, no ECG abnormalities were observed, and renal function returned to normal within 24-48 hours with routine supportive measures only.126,342 No prolonged sequelae were observed.126,342

In a patient with angina and a history of bundle branch block who was receiving tricyclic antidepressants and ingested a single 900-mg dose of nifedipine capsules, loss of consciousness (within 30 minutes of nifedipine ingestion) and profound hypotension (which responded to calcium infusion, pressor agents, and fluid replacement) were observed.126,342 Because ECG abnormalities (e.g., sinus bradycardia, varying degrees of AV block) developed, a temporary ventricular pacemaker was required; thereafter, ECG abnormalities resolved spontaneously.126,342 Substantial hyperglycemia also was observed but resolved rapidly without treatment.126,342

Ingestion of a single 280-mg dose of nifedipine capsules in a young patient with hypertension and advanced renal failure resulted in marked hypotension which responded to calcium infusion and fluids.126,342 No AV conduction abnormalities, arrhythmias, pronounced change in heart rate, or further deterioration in renal function were observed.126,342

Pharmacology

Nifedipine has pharmacologic actions similar to those of other dihydropyridine calcium-channel blocking agents (e.g., felodipine, nisoldipine). The principal physiologic action of nifedipine is to inhibit the transmembrane influx of extracellular calcium ions across the membranes of myocardial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells, without changing serum calcium concentrations.

Calcium plays important roles in the excitation-contraction coupling processes of the heart and vascular smooth muscle cells and in the electrical discharge of the specialized conduction cells of the heart. The membranes of these cells contain numerous channels that carry a slow inward current and that are selective for calcium. Activation of these slow calcium channels contributes to the plateau phase (phase 2) of the action potential of cardiac and vascular smooth muscle cells.

The exact mechanism whereby nifedipine inhibits calcium ion influx across the slow calcium channels is not known, but the drug is thought to inhibit ion-control gating mechanisms of the channel, deform the slow channel, and/or interfere with release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

By inhibiting calcium influx, nifedipine inhibits the contractile processes of cardiac and vascular smooth muscle, thereby dilating the main coronary and systemic arteries. In patients with Prinzmetal variant angina (vasospastic angina), inhibition of spontaneous and ergonovine-induced coronary artery spasm by nifedipine results in increased myocardial oxygen delivery. Dilation of systemic arteries by nifedipine results in a decrease in total peripheral resistance, a usually modest decrease in systemic blood pressure (e.g., a decrease of 5-10 mm Hg), a decrease in the afterload of the heart, a small reflex increase in heart rate, and an increase in the cardiac index. The reduction in afterload, seen at rest and with exercise, and its resultant decrease in myocardial oxygen consumption are thought to be responsible for the effects of nifedipine in patients with chronic stable angina pectoris.

In contrast to verapamil and diltiazem, nifedipine has little or no effect on sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular (AV) nodal conduction at therapeutic doses.

Although negative inotropic effects have been noted in vitro and in animal studies with nifedipine, they are rarely, if ever, seen clinically, probably because of reflex responses to the drug's vasodilating actions including a small increase in heart rate. Major increases in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) or volume (LVEDV) or decreases in cardiac ejection fraction usually are not seen following nifedipine administration in patients with normal ventricular function. In patients with impaired ventricular function, some increase in ejection fraction and reduction in left ventricular filling pressure may be seen acutely.

Pharmacokinetics

Absorption

Approximately 90% of an oral dose of nifedipine is rapidly absorbed from the GI tract following oral administration of the drug as conventional capsules. Only about 45-75% of an oral dose as conventional capsules reaches systemic circulation as unchanged drug since nifedipine is metabolized on first pass through the liver. Peak serum concentrations usually are reached within 0.5-2 hours after oral administration as conventional capsules. Food appears to decrease the rate but not the extent of absorption of nifedipine as conventional capsules.140

The manufacturer states that relative oral bioavailability differs little if conventional nifedipine capsules are swallowed intact, bitten and swallowed, or bitten and held sublingually.284 However, some data indicate that the rate and extent of absorption of nifedipine following sublingual administration may be decreased substantially.134,135,136,137 In several studies, peak plasma concentrations of nifedipine appeared to be delayed and decreased following sublingual administration.134,135,136,137 In one crossover study in healthy adults in which a 10-mg conventional capsule of the drug was bitten and held sublingually for 20 minutes or bitten and swallowed, the bioavailability following sublingual administration was 17% (range: 7-28%) of that following oral administration of a bitten capsule; on average, 86% of the dose remained in the mouth at the end of the 20-minute sublingual retention period.135 In this study, peak serum nifedipine concentrations following sublingual or oral administration of a bitten capsule occurred within 50 (range: 20-99) or 30 (range: 15-49) minutes, respectively, and averaged 10 (range: 5-17) or 82 (range: 44-146) ng/mL, respectively.135 Oral bioavailability of nifedipine may be increased126,133 up to twofold in patients with liver cirrhosis.133

The commercially available extended-release tablets of nifedipine (Procardia XL^®) contain the drug in an oral osmotic delivery system formulation (elementary osmotic pump, gastrointestinal therapeutic system [GITS]).126,127,128,129,130 The osmotic delivery system consists of an osmotically active core (comprised of a layer containing the drug and a layer containing osmotically active but pharmacologically inert components) that is surrounded by a semipermeable membrane with a laser-drilled delivery orifice126,127,128,129 and is designed to deliver the drug at an approximately constant rate over a 24-hour period (approximately zero-order delivery).126,127,128,129 When exposed to water in the GI tract, water is drawn osmotically into the core at a controlled rate that is determined by the permeability of the outer membrane and the osmotic pressure of the core formulation; as water enters the formulation, a resulting suspension of the drug is pushed out the delivery orifice of the membrane into the GI tract.126,127,128,129 Delivery of nifedipine from the formulation depends on the existence of an osmotic gradient between the fluid in the GI tract and the osmotically active core of the tablet, with drug delivery remaining approximately constant as long as the gradient is maintained and then declining parabolically to zero as the concentration inside the tablet falls below saturation.126,127,128,129 The rate of nifedipine delivery in the GI tract is independent of pH over the range of 1.2-7.5 and probably GI motility.126,127,128,129 The inert tablet ingredients remain intact and are eliminated in feces.126,129

Extended-release tablets (Procardia XL^®) labeled as containing 30, 60, or 90 mg of nifedipine reportedly deliver the drug into the GI tract at an approximately constant rate of 1.7, 3.4, and 5.1 mg/hour, respectively, throughout the 24-hour dosing period.127 Following oral administration of a single dose of the drug as extended-release tablets, plasma nifedipine concentrations increase gradually, reaching a peak at approximately 6 hours, and bioavailability is approximately 55-65% of that achieved with the same doses administered orally as conventional capsules.130 Following multiple doses, oral bioavailability from the extended-release tablets increases to approximately 75-86% of that achieved with the same doses administered as conventional capsules.126,130 Administration of Procardia XL^® nifedipine extended-release tablets with food can increase the early rate of GI absorption but reportedly does not affect overall bioavailability.126

The commercially available extended-release tablets of nifedipine (Adalat^® CC) are composed of a slow-release outer coat and an immediate-release core.342 The bioavailability of nifedipine as Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets relative to conventional nifedipine capsules is about 84-89%.342 Following oral administration of Adalat^® CC in fasting individuals, peak plasma concentrations occur within 2.5-5 hours, with a small second peak (or “shoulder”) occurring within 6-12 hours.342 Following oral administration of Adalat^® CC extended-release nifedipine 30-mg tablets over a dosage range of 30-90 mg, the area under the plasma-concentration time curve (AUC) was proportional to the dose administered; however, peak plasma concentrations of the 90-mg dose (three 30-mg tablets) were 29% greater than that predicted from the 30- and 60-mg doses.342 Once-daily dosing of Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets, under fasting conditions, resulted in less fluctuation in plasma nifedipine concentrations when compared with 3-times-daily dosing with conventional nifedipine capsules.342 Following administration of a single Adalat^® CC 90-mg extended-release tablet under fasting conditions, mean peak plasma nifedipine concentration of about 115 ng/mL were reported.342 Administration of Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets immediately after a high-fat meal increases peak plasma nifedipine concentrations by 60% and delays the time to peak plasma concentrations; however, no substantial changes in AUC occur.342 Peak plasma concentrations of nifedipine following administration of Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets after a high-fat meal are slightly lower compared with those occurring after administration of the same daily dosage given in 3 divided doses as the conventional nifedipine capsules; this difference may be attributed to the lower bioavailability of Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets compared with that of conventional nifedipine capsules.342

Following oral administration of Adalat^® CC extended-release nifedipine tablets in healthy geriatric individuals (older than 60 years of age), the mean peak plasma concentrations and average plasma concentrations of nifedipine increased by 36 and 70%, respectively, compared with those observed in younger adults.342

With another extended-release tablet formulation (Adalat L^®, not commercially available in the US), both the rate and extent (over 12 hours) of absorption of a single dose of nifedipine were increased by administration with food.131 Because orally administered nifedipine undergoes extensive metabolism on first pass through the liver, bioavailability of the drug from extended-release tablets is increased substantially in patients with liver cirrhosis126,132 and may be particularly increased in those with portacaval shunts.132 Substantial reductions in GI retention time for prolonged periods (e.g., in patients with short-bowel syndrome) can result in decreased absorption of nifedipine from extended-release tablets.126

Distribution

Binding of nifedipine to plasma proteins is concentration dependent and ranges from 92-98%. Protein binding may be reduced in patients with renal126,133,139,284,307,342 or hepatic (e.g., liver cirrhosis)126,132,133,284,307,342 impairment.

Elimination

In patients with normal renal and hepatic function, the plasma half-life of nifedipine is about 2 hours when administered as conventional capsules, and about 7 hours when administered as extended-release tablets (Adalat^® CC).126,284,342 The drug is extensively metabolized in the liver (to highly water-soluble, inactive metabolites)126,284,342 by the cytochrome P-450 microsomal enzyme system, including CYP3A. 342 Approximately 60-80% of an oral dose of nifedipine is excreted as metabolites in the urine, with only traces (less than 0.1%) of an oral dose being excreted in urine as unchanged drug.126,342 The remainder of a dose is excreted in the feces as metabolites, possibly via biliary elimination.126,342 Nifedipine appears to be negligibly removed by hemodialysis or hemoperfusion.100,126,342

Adalat^® CC extended-release tablets should be used with caution in patients with renal impairment because absorption of the drug may be altered in such patients.342 In patients with hepatic impairment, elimination of the drug may be altered.126,132,133,284,307,342 The elimination half-life of nifedipine has been reported to increase126,132,133,284,307,342 to 7 hours in patients with liver cirrhosis;132,133 oral bioavailability of the drug also is increased in such patients.126,284,307,342

Following IV administration of nifedipine, body clearance of the drug is 519 and 348 mL/minute in young adults and geriatric individuals, respectively. 342

Chemistry and Stability

Chemistry

Nifedipine is a 1,4-dihydropyridine-derivative calcium-channel blocking agent.126,284,342 The drug occurs as a yellow, crystalline powder and is practically insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol.126,284,342

Stability

Nifedipine liquid-filled capsules should be protected from light and moisture and stored in tight, light-resistant containers at a temperature of 15-25°C,284 and extended-release tablets of the drug should be protected from light and moisture and stored in tight, light-resistant containers at a temperature less than 30°C.126,342

Additional Information

The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. represents that the information provided in the accompanying monograph was formulated with a reasonable standard of care, and in conformity with professional standards in the field. Readers are advised that decisions regarding use of drugs are complex medical decisions requiring the independent, informed decision of an appropriate health care professional, and that the information contained in the monograph is provided for informational purposes only. The manufacturer's labeling should be consulted for more detailed information. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. does not endorse or recommend the use of any drug. The information contained in the monograph is not a substitute for medical care.

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