Neonatal Hypoxic Respiratory Failure
Nitric oxide gas is used in conjunction with ventilatory support and other appropriate therapy to improve oxygenation and reduce the need for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in term or near-term (exceeding 34 weeks' gestation) neonates with hypoxic respiratory failure and clinical or ECG evidence of pulmonary hypertension.1, 2, 3, 9, 26, 27, 28
Results from 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials in term or near-term neonates who had hypoxic respiratory failure with or without pulmonary hypertension indicate that inhaled nitric oxide gas (20 ppm mixed with either 100% oxygen or nitrogen) improved the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) and decreased the need for ECMO at 303 or 120 days2 compared with ventilatory support and supplemental oxygen or nitrogen (placebo) gas alone.1, 2, 3, 4, 6 In these neonates, hypoxic respiratory failure was caused by idiopathic persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN) or other underlying conditions (e.g., meconium aspiration syndrome, pneumonia with or without sepsis, respiratory distress syndrome, pulmonary hypoplasia associated with congenital diaphragmatic hernia) and in many cases had not responded adequately to conventional therapy (e.g., vasodilators, IV fluids, bicarbonate therapy, mechanical ventilation).1, 2, 3 The need for ECMO was decreased from 55-57% with placebo or oxygen alone to 31-39% with inhaled nitric oxide.1 In addition, improvement in hypoxemia (as measured by an increase in PaO2, a decrease in oxygenation index [mean airway pressure in cm of water × fraction of inspired oxygen concentration × 100/PaO2 in mm Hg], or in the alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient) was greater in neonates receiving inhaled nitric oxide.1, 2, 6 Nitric oxide therapy reduced the combined incidence of death and/or need for ECMO in these studies but had no effect on mortality alone.1, 2, 3 Long-term follow-up data from one of these clinical trials indicate that neurodevelopmental, behavioral, or medical abnormalities were not increased in patients receiving inhaled nitric oxide at 18-24 months of age.1, 6, 10
Similar beneficial effects (i.e., reduction in combined incidence of death and chronic lung disease) were observed in premature neonates† (less than 34 weeks' gestation) who were undergoing mechanical ventilation for respiratory distress syndrome in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.14, 15 However, the manufacturer states that the drug currently is not indicated in this age group.1 Nitric oxide therapy also decreased the incidence of severe intraventricular hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia, the principal cause of serious, long-term disability in this patient population.14, 15
Available data suggest that inhaled nitric oxide is most effective in patients with severe persistent pulmonary hypertension who have minimal underlying parenchymal lung disease (idiopathic persistent pulmonary hypertension) and least effective in neonates with pulmonary hypoplasia (e.g., congenital diaphragmatic hernia).1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 In a large clinical trial, treatment failure (defined as no response to a dosage of 20 or 80 ppm of nitric oxide and/or an absolute decrease in oxygen saturation exceeding 10%) occurred in 34% of term or near-term neonates with respiratory failure and persistent pulmonary hypertension receiving nitric oxide (20 ppm).2
Prevention of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia
Inhaled nitric oxide is not recommended for the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia† in preterm neonates (34 weeks' gestational age or younger) requiring respiratory support; results of 4 multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies in a total of 2600 preterm infants failed to demonstrate evidence of efficacy of inhaled nitric oxide (administered at doses ranging from 5-20 ppm for treatment periods of 7-24 days) for this use.1, 26, 27, 28
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
The manufacturers state that inhaled nitric oxide is not indicated for use in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)†.1, 26, 27, 28 However, the drug has been used in adults and children with ARDS, generally as a rescue therapy for refractory hypoxemia.1, 17, 18, 20, 21
Treatment of ARDS is largely supportive with mechanical ventilation being the only proven intervention that reduces mortality.18, 25 Nitric oxide is a selective pulmonary vasodilator that may be used adjunctively to improve oxygenation; following inhalation, nitric oxide diffuses to and induces vasodilation in well-ventilated areas of the lung, thus improving the ventilation-perfusion mismatch that occurs in patients with ARDS.17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24 The role of inhaled nitric oxide in the management of ARDS has been evaluated in multiple randomized controlled studies conducted in both adults and children.17, 19, 29 These studies collectively demonstrated modest and temporary improvement in oxygenation, but no effect on mortality and possible harm (e.g., renal impairment).1, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 29 In a systematic review of 14 randomized controlled studies involving 1275 children and adults with ARDS or acute lung injury, treatment with inhaled nitric oxide was associated with transient improvement in oxygenation at 24 hours, but did not reduce mortality or have a beneficial effect on other clinical outcomes (e.g., ICU/hospital length of stay).17 Evidence from 4 of these studies indicated that inhaled nitric oxide increased the risk of renal impairment in adults.17
Based on the currently available evidence, routine use of inhaled nitric oxide is not recommended in patients with ARDS; however, some experts state that the drug may be considered in cases of severe hypoxemia not responsive to conventional ventilation strategies, provided certain precautions are observed.17, 19, 20, 22, 29 Other exceptions for use include patients with documented pulmonary hypertension or severe right ventricular dysfunction.22, 23, 24 Because the risk of renal toxicity appears to be increased with higher concentrations and/or prolonged use of nitric oxide, the minimum effective concentration necessary to improve the ratio of PaO2 to fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2) should be used and the duration of exposure should be minimized.20
Dispensing and Administration Precautions
Inhaled nitric oxide should be administered using a calibrated FDA-cleared nitric oxide delivery system; various FDA-cleared systems are available and clinicians should refer to the product labeling to determine which system to use with the drug product.1, 26, 27, 28 The Genosyl® preparation must be used with the Genosyl® delivery system, which is designed to deliver a controlled level of nitric oxide mixed with air (breathing air or oxygen-enriched breathing air).26 Clinicians should be aware that certain nitric oxide delivery systems are specifically cleared for use in the MRI suite.1, 26, 27, 28 A backup battery power supply and an independent reserve nitric oxide delivery system should be available to ensure continuous administration during a power and/or system failure.1, 4, 26, 27, 28
Store cylinders containing nitric oxide at 25ºC (excursions permitted between 15-30ºC).1, 27, 28 Cylinders should be protected from shocks, falls, oxidizing and flammable materials, moisture, and sources of heat or ignition.1, 27, 28 Store the Genosyl® system at 20-25ºC (excursions permitted between 15-30ºC).26
Neonatal Hypoxic Respiratory Failure
The recommended inhalation dosage of nitric oxide gas in term or near-term neonates (those exceeding 34 weeks' gestation) with hypoxic respiratory failure associated with pulmonary hypertension is 20 ppm given continuously for up to for 14 days or until the underlying oxygen desaturation has resolved and the patient is ready to be weaned from therapy.1, 26, 27, 28
Inhaled nitric oxide should be used in conjunction with ventilatory support and other appropriate therapy to maximize oxygen delivery.1, 2, 3 In clinical trials, the safety and efficacy of inhaled nitric oxide were established in neonates with respiratory failure receiving conventional treatment, such as vasodilators (e.g., sodium nitroprusside),1, 2, 9 IV fluids for volume support,1, 2, 9 bicarbonate therapy for induction of alkalosis,1, 2, 3, 9 and mechanical ventilation.1, 2, 3 In neonates with collapsed alveoli, additional therapies to improve lung expansion have included pulmonary surfactant replacement and high-frequency oscillatory ventilation.1, 4, 5, 7, 9
In several clinical trials, the median duration of treatment with inhaled nitric oxide ranged from 5-60 hours (i.e., generally <5 days);2, 3, 5, 9 however, therapy has been continued for up to 2 weeks in some studies.2 Following improvement in oxygenation with the initial dosage of nitric oxide, smaller maintenance dosages (5-6 ppm) have been used.1, 3, 5, 8 Higher than recommended dosages of nitric oxide (e.g., 40-80 ppm) generally have not provided additional benefit but have been associated with an increased incidence of adverse effects,1, 2, 4, 5, 9 and the manufacturer states that dosages exceeding 20 ppm are not recommended.1, 26, 27, 28
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Various inhaled nitric oxide dosages in the range of 5-10 ppm have been used for the treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)† in clinical studies in adults and pediatric patients; evidence suggests that concentrations less than 5 ppm are likely to improve oxygenation, while doses greater than 10 ppm may worsen the ratio of PaO2 to fraction of inspired oxygen (PaO2/FiO2).1, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24 In clinical studies, inhaled nitric oxide was given in fixed doses or titrated to response.17 Duration of therapy has ranged from less than 24 hours to 4 weeks (median of 7 days).1, 17
Nitric oxide therapy should not be discontinued abruptly since patients may experience rebound pulmonary hypertension with manifestations such as hypoxemia, oxygen desaturation, bradycardia, decreased cardiac output, and/or systemic hypotension.1, 4, 8, 11 Weaning and discontinuance of nitric oxide therapy generally have been performed in neonates who had adequate oxygenation (as measured by a PaO2 of greater than 50-60 mm Hg, an increase in PaO2 from baseline exceeding 20 mm Hg, oxygen saturation exceeding 92%, lack of appreciable oxygen gradient through the ductus arteriosus or foramen ovale, requirement for an FiO2 less than 0.60) and a mean airway pressure less than 10 cm of water.2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 11
The manufacturers recommend downward titration in several steps when discontinuing nitric oxide therapy, pausing several hours at each step to monitor for hypoxemia.1, 26, 27, 28 Several weaning regimens have been used in clinical studies conducted in neonates with hypoxic respiratory failure, including a stepwise dosage reduction in increments as little as 1 ppm.4, 8, 11 If clinical deterioration occurs during the weaning period, the nitric oxide dosage and/or FiO2 may be increased transiently.4, 5, 8, 9, 11 If deterioration occurs after discontinuance of nitric oxide therapy, such therapy may be reinstituted temporarily at the last dosage used.9
Rebound Pulmonary Hypertension Syndrome following Abrupt Discontinuation
Inhaled nitric oxide therapy should be weaned.1, 26, 27, 28 Worsening oxygenation and increasing pulmonary artery pressure (i.e., Rebound Pulmonary Hypertension Syndrome) may occur with abrupt discontinuation of therapy.1, 26, 27, 28 Signs and symptoms of this syndrome may include hypoxemia, systemic hypotension, bradycardia, and reduced cardiac output.1, 26, 27, 28 Inhaled nitric oxide therapy should be immediately reinstated if Rebound Pulmonary Hypertension Syndrome occurs.1, 26, 27, 28
Hypoxemia from Methemoglobinemia
Nitric oxide and hemoglobin combine to form methemoglobin, which does not transport oxygen.1, 26, 27, 28 As the dose of inhaled nitric oxide increases, methemoglobin levels increase.1, 26, 27, 28 Steady-state methemoglobin levels may not occur for ≥8 hours; methemoglobin levels should be monitored and the dose of inhaled nitric oxide adjusted as necessary to optimize oxygenation.1, 26, 27, 28
Additional treatment may be required if methemoglobin levels do not resolve upon a reduction in inhaled nitric oxide dose or discontinuation of therapy.1, 26, 27, 28
Airway Injury from Nitrogen Dioxide
Airway inflammation and lung tissue damage may be caused by nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which is formed in gas mixtures containing nitric oxide and oxygen.1, 26, 27, 28
If an unexpected change in nitrogen dioxide occurs, or if the nitrogen dioxide concentration reaches 3 ppm when measured in the breathing circuit, the delivery system should be evaluated and the nitrogen dioxide analyzer should be recalibrated.1, 26, 27, 28 Clinicians should adjust the dose of inhaled nitric oxide and/or fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) appropriately.1, 26, 27, 28
Administration of inhaled nitric oxide to patients with left ventricular dysfunction may result in pulmonary edema, increased pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, worsening of left ventricular dysfunction, systemic hypotension, bradycardia, and cardiac arrest.1, 26, 27, 28 Inhaled nitric oxide should be discontinued while symptomatic care is administered.1, 26, 27, 28
The manufacturers state that efficacy and safety of inhaled nitric oxide have been established in term or near-term neonates with hypoxic respiratory failure and evidence of pulmonary hypertension.1, 26, 27, 28
There is evidence from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of beneficial effects in premature neonates (younger than 34 weeks' gestation) with respiratory distress syndrome who received inhaled nitric oxide therapy while undergoing mechanical ventilation.14, 15 There is also evidence from several randomized studies demonstrating potential use in children with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)†.17, 19, 22, 23, 24
Efficacy has not been established for the prevention of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature neonates.1, 26, 27, 28
The most common adverse reaction is hypotension.1, 26, 27, 28
The risk of methemoglobinemia may be increased when nitric oxide is used concomitantly with nitric oxide donor agents (e.g., sodium nitroprusside, nitroglycerin, prilocaine).1, 26, 27, 28
Nitric oxide is a vasodilating agent.1, 8, 10 Endogenous nitric oxide is produced by many cells of the body and relaxes smooth muscle by increasing intracellular levels of cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP), which lowers intracellular calcium concentrations and results in vasodilation.1, 8, 9 When inhaled as a gas, nitric oxide diffuses from the alveoli into vascular smooth muscle and causes selective pulmonary vasodilation.1, 8, 9
Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN) is a developmental defect or acquired condition in which pulmonary vascular resistance is high, resulting in right-to-left shunting of blood through the patent ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale and subsequent hypoxemia.1 Exogenously administered nitric oxide gas appears to increase the partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO2) by dilating pulmonary vessels in better ventilated areas of the lung, thereby redistributing pulmonary blood flow away from regions with poor gas exchange (as indicated by ventilation/perfusion ratios) toward regions with better gas exchange.1, 4 Nitric oxide is absorbed systemically after inhalation.1 When inhaled, nitric oxide is rapidly metabolized; thus, the inhaled drug does not affect systemic vascular resistance; it is excreted principally in urine as nitrate.1, 6, 8, 9, 10 The metabolic products of nitric oxide that reach systemic circulation are predominantly methemoglobin and nitrate.1
Additional Information
The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. represents that the information provided in the accompanying monograph was formulated with a reasonable standard of care, and in conformity with professional standards in the field. Readers are advised that decisions regarding use of drugs are complex medical decisions requiring the independent, informed decision of an appropriate health care professional, and that the information contained in the monograph is provided for informational purposes only. The manufacturer's labeling should be consulted for more detailed information. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. does not endorse or recommend the use of any drug. The information contained in the monograph is not a substitute for medical care.
Excipients in commercially available drug preparations may have clinically important effects in some individuals; consult specific product labeling for details.
Please refer to the ASHP Drug Shortages Resource Center for information on shortages of one or more of these preparations.
Routes | Dosage Forms | Strengths | Brand Names | Manufacturer |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Oral Inhalation | Gas | 800 ppm | Genosyl® | Vero Biotech |
Noxivent® | Linde Gas & Equipment, Inc. | |||
Ulspira® | Airgas Therapeutics, LLC | |||
4880 ppm | INOmax® | INO Therapeutics |
1. INO Therapeutics. INOmax® (nitric oxide) gas for inhalation prescribing information. Bedminster, NJ; 2023 Apr.
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3. Clark RH, Kueser TJ, Walker MW et al. Low-dose nitric oxide therapy for persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. N Engl J Med . 2000; 342:469-74. [PubMed 10675427]
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14. Schreiber MD, Gin-Mestan K, Marks JD et al. Inhaled nitric oxide in premature infants with the respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med . 2003; 349:2099-107. [PubMed 14645637]
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26. Vero Biotech. Genosyl® (nitric oxide) for inhalation prescribing information. Atlanta, GA; 2024 Aug.
27. Linde Gas and Equipment Inc. Noxivent® (nitric oxide) for inhalation prescribing information. Bethlehem, PA; 2025 Jan.
28. Airgas Therapeutics, LLC. Ulspira® (nitric oxide) for inhalation prescribing information. Plumsteadville, PA; 2023 Nov.
29. Kaplish D, Vagha JD, Meshram RJ, et al. A comprehensive review of inhaled nitric oxide therapy: current trends, challenges, and future directions. Cureus. 2024;16(2):e53558.