Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
| Developmental Level | Central Task | Focal Relationships/Issues | Negative Resolution | Positive Resolution (Basic Virtues) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infant | Basic trust vs. basic mistrust | Mother, primary caregivers, feeding, "feeling and being comforted," sleeping, teething, "taking in," trusting self, others, and environment | Suspicious, fearful | Drive and hope |
| Toddler | Autonomy vs. shame and doubt | Parents, primary caregivers, toilet training, bodily functions, experimenting with "holding on and letting go," having control without loss of self-esteem | Doubts abilities, feels ashamed for not trying | Self-confidence and willpower |
| Preschooler | Initiative vs. guilt | Family, play, exploring and discovering, learning how much assertiveness influences others and the environment, developing a sense of moral responsibility | May fear disapproval of own powers | Direction and purpose |
| School-ager | Industry vs. inferiority | School, teachers, friends, experiencing physical independence from parents, neighborhood, wishing to accomplish, learning to create and produce, accepting when to cease a project, learning to complete a project, learning to cooperate, developing an attitude toward work | May feel sense of failure | Method and competence |
| Adolescent | Identity vs. role confusion | Peers and groups, experiencing emotional independence from parents, seeking to be the same as others yet unique, planning to actualize abilities and goals, fusing several identities into one | Confused, nonfocused | Devotion and fidelity |
| Young adult | Intimacy vs. isolation | Friends, lovers, spouses, community, work connections (networking), committing to work relationships, committing to social relationships, committing to intimate relationships | Loneliness, poor relationships | Affiliation and love |
| Middle-aged adult | Generativity vs. stagnation | Younger generation-often children (whether one’s own or those of others), family, community, mentoring others, helping to care for others, discovering new abilities/talents, continuing to create, "giving back" | Shallow involvement with the world in general, selfish, little psychosocial growth | Production and care |
| Older adult | Ego integrity vs. despaira | All mankind, reviewing one’s life, acceptance of self-uniqueness, acceptance of worth of others, acceptance of death as an entity | Regretful, discontented, pessimistic | Renunciation and wisdom |
aBased on his experiences/research and as he continued to live longer, Erikson contemplated extending this phase of generativity and suggested that a ninth stage might be added to his theory. He posited that those who positively resolved generativity could move to a higher level that addressed a premonition of immortality (i.e., a new sense of self that transcends universe and time).