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Table 192-2

Infectious Causes of Chronic Meningitis

Causative AgentCSF FormulaHelpful Diagnostic TestsRisk Factors and Systemic Manifestations
Common Bacterial Causes
Partially treated suppurative meningitisMononuclear or mixed mononuclear-polymorphonuclear cellsCSF culture and Gram's stainHistory consistent with acute bacterial meningitis and incomplete treatment
Parameningeal infectionMononuclear or mixed polymorphonuclear-mononuclear cellsContrast-enhanced CT or MRI to detect parenchymal, subdural, epidural, or sinus infectionOtitis media, pleuropulmonary infection, right-to-left cardiopulmonary shunt for brain abscess; focal neurologic signs; neck, back, ear, or sinus tenderness
Mycobacterium tuberculosisMononuclear cells except polymorphonuclear cells in early infection (commonly <500 WBC/µL); low CSF glucose, high proteinTuberculin skin test may be negative; AFB culture of CSF (sputum, urine, gastric contents if indicated); tuberculostearic acid detection in CSF; identify tubercle bacillus on acid-fast stain of CSF or protein pellicle; PCRExposure history; previous tuberculous illness; immunosuppressed, anti-TNF therapy or AIDS; young children; fever, meningismus, night sweats, miliary TB on x-ray or liver biopsy; stroke due to arteritis
Lyme disease (Bannwarth's syndrome) Borrelia burgdorferiMononuclear cells; elevated proteinSerum Lyme antibody titer; Western blot confirmation; (pts with syphilis may have false-positive Lyme titer)History of tick bite or appropriate exposure history; erythema chronicum migrans skin rash; arthritis, radiculopathy, Bell's palsy, meningoencephalitis-multiple sclerosis-like syndrome
Syphilis (secondary, tertiary) Treponema pallidumMononuclear cells; elevated proteinCSF VDRL; serum VDRL (or RPR); fluorescent treponemal antibody-absorbed (FTA) or MHA-TP; serum VDRL may be negative in tertiary syphilisAppropriate exposure history; HIV-seropositive individuals at increased risk of aggressive infection; “dementia”; cerebral infarction due to endarteritis
Uncommon Bacterial Causes
ActinomycesPolymorphonuclear cellsAnaerobic cultureParameningeal abscess or sinus tract (oral or dental focus); pneumonitis
NocardiaPolymorphonuclear; occasionally mononuclear cells; often low glucoseIsolation may require weeks; weakly acid fastAssociated brain abscess may be present
BrucellaMononuclear cells (rarely polymorphonuclear); elevated protein; often low glucoseCSF antibody detection; serum antibody detectionIntake of unpasteurized dairy products; exposure to goats, sheep, cows; fever, arthralgia, myalgia, vertebral osteomyelitis
Whipple's disease Tropheryma whippleiMononuclear cellsBiopsy of small bowel or lymph node; CSF PCR for T. whipplei; brain and meningeal biopsy (with PAS stain and EM examination)Diarrhea, weight loss, arthralgias, fever; dementia, ataxia, paresis, ophthalmoplegia, oculomasticatory myoclonus
Rare Bacterial Causes
Leptospirosis (occasionally if left untreated may last 3-4 weeks)
Fungal Causes
Cryptococcus neoformansMononuclear cells; count not elevated in some pts with AIDSIndia ink or fungal wet mount of CSF (budding yeast); blood and urine cultures; antigen detection in CSFAIDS and immune suppression; pigeon exposure; skin and other organ involvement due to disseminated infection
Coccidioides immitisMononuclear cells (sometimes 10-20% eosinophils); often low glucoseAntibody detection in CSF and serumExposure history—southwestern U.S.; increased virulence in dark-skinned races
Candida sp.Polymorphonuclear or mononuclearFungal stain and culture of CSFIV drug abuse; post surgery; prolonged IV therapy; disseminated candidiasis
Histoplasma capsulatumMononuclear cells; low glucoseFungal stain and culture of large volumes of CSF; antigen detection in CSF, serum, and urine; antibody detection in serum, CSFExposure history—Ohio and central Mississippi River Valley; AIDS; mucosal lesions
Blastomyces dermatitidisMononuclear cellsFungal stain and culture of CSF; biopsy and culture of skin, lung lesions; antibody detection in serumMidwestern and southeastern U.S.; usually systemic infection; abscesses, draining sinus, ulcers
Aspergillus sp.Mononuclear or polymorphonuclearCSF cultureSinusitis; granulocytopenia or immunosuppression
Sporothrix schenckiiMononuclear cellsAntibody detection in CSF and serum; CSF cultureTraumatic inoculation; IV drug use; ulcerated skin lesion
Rare Fungal Causes
Xylohypha (formerly Cladosporium) trichoides and other dark-walled (dematiaceous) fungi such as Curvularia, Drechslera; Mucor, and, after water aspiration, Pseudallescheria boydii, iatrogenic Exserohilum rostratum infection following spinal blocks
Protozoal Causes
Toxoplasma gondiiMononuclear cellsBiopsy or response to empirical therapy in clinically appropriate context (including presence of antibody in serum)Usually with intracerebral abscesses; common in HIV-seropositive pts
Trypanosomiasis Trypanosoma gambiense, T. rhodesienseMononuclear cells, elevated proteinElevated CSF IgM; identification of trypanosomes in CSF and blood smearEndemic in Africa; chancre, lymphadenopathy; prominent sleep disorder
Rare Protozoal Causes
Acanthamoeba sp. causing granulomatous amebic encephalitis and meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised and debilitated individuals. Balamuthia mandrillaris causing chronic meningoencephalitis in immunocompetent hosts.
Helminthic Causes
Cysticercosis (infection with cysts of Taenia solium)Mononuclear cells; may have eosinophils; glucose level may be lowIndirect hemagglutination assay in CSF; ELISA immunoblotting in serumUsually with multiple cysts in basal meninges and hydrocephalus; cerebral cysts, muscle calcification
Gnathostoma spinigerumEosinophils, mononuclear cellsPeripheral eosinophiliaHistory of eating raw fish; common in Thailand and Japan; subarachnoid hemorrhage; painful radiculopathy
Angiostrongylus cantonensisEosinophils, mononuclear cellsRecovery of worms from CSFHistory of eating raw shellfish; common in tropical Pacific regions; often benign
Baylisascaris procyonis (raccoon ascarid)Eosinophils, mononuclear cells Infection follows accidental ingestion of B. procyonis eggs from raccoon feces; fatal meningoencephalitis
Rare Helminthic Causes
Trichinella spiralis (trichinosis); Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke), Echinococcus cysts; Schistosoma sp. The former may produce a lymphocytic pleocytosis whereas the latter two may produce an eosinophilic response in CSF associated with cerebral cysts (Echinococcus) or granulomatous lesions of brain or spinal cord
Viral Causes
MumpsMononuclear cellsAntibody in serumNo prior mumps or immunization; may produce meningoencephalitis; may persist for 3-4 weeks
Lymphocytic choriomeningitisMononuclear cellsAntibody in serumContact with rodents or their excreta; may persist for 3-4 weeks
EchovirusMononuclear cells; may have low glucoseVirus isolation from CSFCongenital hypogammaglobulinemia; history of recurrent meningitis
HIV (acute retroviral syndrome)Mononuclear cellsp24 antigen in serum and CSF; high level of HIV viremia.HIV risk factors; rash, fever, lymphadenopathy; lymphopenia in peripheral blood; syndrome may persist long enough to be considered as “chronic meningitis”; or chronic meningitis may develop in later stages (AIDS) due to HIV
Herpes simplex (HSV)Mononuclear cellsPCR for HSV, CMV DNA; CSF antibody for HSV, EBVRecurrent meningitis due to HSV-2 (rarely HSV-1) often associated with genital recurrences; EBV associated with myeloradiculopathy, CMV with polyradiculopathy

Abbreviations: AFB, acid-fast bacillus; EM, electron microscopy; FTA, fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test; HSV, herpes simplex virus; MHA-TP, microhemagglutination assay-T. pallidum; PAS, periodic acid-Schiff; RPR, rapid plasma reagin test; TB, tuberculosis; VDRL, Venereal Disease Research Laboratories test.