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Basics ⬇

Outline

BASICS

Definition!!navigator!!

  • Learning influences everything a horse does throughout its life. It is a consequence of the animal's experience with the environment and is one of the basic mechanisms of survival
  • Behavior modification is the analysis and treatment of undesirable behavior using learning principles
  • Training describes the process of teaching an animal to perform a new behavior or exhibit a species-typical behavior in designated circumstances
  • Parallel and overlapping terminology have evolved within diverse groups of people in applied behavioral professions
  • Training and behavior modification often require a delicate balance of modifying a specific segment in a sequence of behaviors without interfering with desirable components of a behavior pattern and without introducing new problems
  • Familiarity with species-typical behaviors and principles of learning are fundamental to recognizing when a behavior is affected by pathophysiologic states, experience, or learning

Pathophysiology!!navigator!!

  • Pain, anxiety, and fear are common causes of handling, training, and other behavioral problems
  • Undesirable, learned behaviors may persist after medical or environmental etiologies are corrected
  • Numerous physiologic states and pathologies can affect learning:
    • Chronic back pain and vision problems are often unrecognized in the riding horse
    • Endocrine states can affect temperament, motivation, and species-typical behaviors, which in turn can result in training and behavior problems

Systems Affected!!navigator!!

Fear, anxiety, and pain can affect almost all physiologic and behavior systems.

Genetics!!navigator!!

  • Learned behaviors are genetically constrained by temperament, intelligence, and physical ability to perform specific behaviors. A practical way to gauge the influence of genetics on the behavior of an individual is to determine if closely related individuals (under different management) exhibit the same problems
  • Often training problems stem from owners’ unrealistic expectations of what a horse is capable

Incidence/Prevalence!!navigator!!

Unknown

Geographic Distribution!!navigator!!

Regional training practices may influence the type and frequency of specific training and learning problems.

Signalment!!navigator!!

Breed Predilections

Breeds vary in temperament and physical abilities, which can influence performance and learning.

Mean Age and Range

Any age.

Predominant Sex

Intact males may pose more problems for handlers and thereby result in more training problems.

Signs!!navigator!!

General Comments

  • Behavioral signs may be similar whether the cause is pathophysiologic, learned, or a species-typical behavior. See chapter Fear
  • Analysis of training and learning problems requires excellent observational skills and understanding of principles of learning
  • Observation by the clinician is usually necessary. Sometimes the horse will exhibit the behavior when brought to the clinician. Audio/visual recordings can be helpful. Often a personal visit to where the horse exhibits the behavior is required. Observation of the horse's environment can provide details the owner has overlooked or when filming

Historical Findings

  • Objective, detailed descriptions and history of development of the problem
  • History of punitive training techniques or traumatic incidents
  • Expectations of owners, handlers, and trainers

Physical Examination Findings

  • Signs indicative of pain or fear
  • Evidence of trauma
  • Be aware that an aroused animal can override physical signs of pain
  • Observe in a different environment or circumstances, e.g. different handler, rider, tack, location. This may help determine if the problem is related to the environment as opposed to a medical problem

Causes!!navigator!!

  • Normal, species-typical behaviors that interfere with management or training, such as defensive responses, play, social behaviors (e.g. greeting behaviors, separation distress responses, courtship behaviors, intermale aggression/displays)
  • Fear
  • Pain
  • Common problematic training and handling techniques are inconsistent use of signals/cues, inadvertently rewarding unwanted behaviors, and/or inappropriate use of aversive stimuli

Risk Factors!!navigator!!

  • Trainers, handlers, or riders with poor psychomotor skills
  • Personnel who base their training/handling philosophies on “showing the horse who is dominant” or believe that horses “are trying to get away with something or are willfully disobedient.” People with such beliefs are less likely to analyze situations critically for the precise stimuli and conditions that cause undesirable behaviors and are more likely to be punitive
  • Addressing learning and training problems requires the cooperation of open-minded, competent, and flexible rider/trainer/owners
  • Sometimes it is not possible for a horse to perform specific tasks at the level an owner expects. Such a mismatch can lead to welfare problems for the horse and frustration for the owner
  • Young animals are especially susceptible to experiences. Isolation, barren environments, and lack of exposure to novel environments and novel stimuli can affect the development of nervous and endocrine systems. In turn, these changes affect the animal's subsequent responses to the environment and learning processes

Diagnosis ⬆ ⬇

Outline

DIAGNOSIS

Differential Diagnosis!!navigator!!

  • Identification of precise stimuli and conditions associated with behavior problems. If necessary, brief exposure to the stimulus or reduced intensity of the stimulus can confirm the eliciting stimuli
  • If unwanted behaviors arise only during training sessions, the entire process should be carefully examined. If the methods adhere to sound principles of learning and the horse is not subject to abusive techniques, pathophysiologic conditions are more likely
  • Pathophysiologic conditions can exist concurrently and independently with inappropriate training and riding techniques

CBC/Biochemistry/Urinalysis!!navigator!!

Usually normal. Dependent on presenting signs.

Other Laboratory Tests!!navigator!!

Dependent on presenting signs; may be indicated to rule out medical conditions.

Imaging!!navigator!!

See Other Laboratory Tests.

Other Diagnostic Procedures!!navigator!!

See Other Laboratory Tests.

Pathologic Findings!!navigator!!

Dependent on the problem.

Treatment ⬆ ⬇

Outline

TREATMENT

Aims!!navigator!!

  • Identify and treat physical problems
  • Recognize species-typical behaviors and implement management to alleviate, minimize, or accommodate these behaviors
  • Realize that after physical problems are successfully treated and management/environmental conditions are changed, behavior problems may persist and still need to be addressed
  • Treat or refer to an appropriate expert for treatment of learned aspects of the problems
  • Educate, refer, or supply sources of information to owners, handlers, and trainers

Principles of Learning!!navigator!!

  • Even if a clinician does not assume responsibility for treating a behavior problem, knowledge of learning principles is helpful in making a differential diagnosis, assisting the owner, and assessing referral experts
  • Animals learn in many ways. Learning can occur as a consequence of exposure to environmental situations or by direct interaction with stimuli in the environment. It may not be immediately apparent by the animal's behavior that it has learned something
  • Conditioning refers to learning associations between stimuli or between a stimulus and a response. Conditioning processes allow the horse to anticipate, predict, and/or prepare for subsequent stimuli. Conditioning also provides the horse with responses for coping with the occurrence of specific stimuli
  • Operant or instrumental conditioning is a process by which the frequency of a behavior is modified by the consequence of the animal's response to a stimulus
  • Positive reinforcers increase the probability that an animal will repeat a behavior
  • Behaviors acquired by intermittent positive reinforcement may persist for a prolonged time after reinforcement stops
  • When positive reinforcement of unwanted behaviors stops, the behaviors may temporarily increase in intensity and/or frequency
  • Negative reinforcers also increase the occurrence of behaviors. Horses perform behaviors to avoid or escape aversive stimuli. Horses learn to avoid aversive stimuli by throwing their heads back, bucking, fleeing, and engaging in other evasive maneuvers. To avoid detrimental consequences training aids must be of appropriate intensity and applied appropriately
  • Successful escape and avoidance of aversive stimuli are highly reinforcing and difficult to extinguish by simply ceasing the aversive reinforcer. A counterconditioning program is usually necessary
  • Punishment is the use of aversive stimuli to stop and reduce/prevent the future occurrence of a behavior. Considerable judgment and timing are required to appropriately implement punishment. A correctly used punisher (the aversive stimulus) should be of high enough intensity to interrupt a behavior but not so high as to cause side effects—such as anxiety, fear, and aggression. It should be applied immediately at the onset of the behavior and used every time the unwanted behavior is initiated. It helps many people to think of punishing the behavior, not punishing the horse. An effective punisher should work within a few applications. Attempts to use an aversive stimulus as a punisher without adhering to these guidelines are, at best, harassment and, at worse, abuse
  • Aversive stimuli always carry the potential of inducing anxiety, fear, and defensive aggression. Even if an aversive stimulus achieves a specific result, the horse may also acquire detrimental behaviors as a consequence. Aversive stimuli are almost always contraindicated if fear is a component of an undesirable behavior
  • The success of “natural horsemanship” and “positive training” techniques attest to the value of nonpunitive and positive reinforcement techniques in training and management of horses

Appropriate Health Care!!navigator!!

Adequate exercise and social interactions are integral parts of maintaining physical and mental health.

Activity!!navigator!!

Meet the species-typical behavioral needs of the horse, e.g. exercise, opportunity to play, social contact, time spent foraging/grazing/chewing.

Diet!!navigator!!

Investigation of the role of diet in learning and behavior is continuously ongoing.

Client Education!!navigator!!

Educate, refer, or supply sources of information regarding learning principles and normal behaviors of the horse.

Surgical Considerations!!navigator!!

Castration or ovariectomy may be indicated.

Medications ⬆ ⬇

Outline

MEDICATIONS

Drug(s) of Choice!!navigator!!

See chapter Fear, Medications.

No drugs are approved for facilitation of training of horses. One study reported use of a combined analgesic/sedative medication, detomidine, that allowed pain-free therapeutic farriering of difficult horses and eventually safe handling without drug therapy.

Contraindications!!navigator!!

Off-label use of tranquilizers or sedatives may alter the visual perception, balance, proprioception, and musculoskeletal coordination of horses. These effects could be detrimental to horse, handler, bystanders, riders, and drivers.

Precautions!!navigator!!

Although use of medications may reduce excitability or fear and minimize or suppress unwanted behaviors, there is no guarantee that a horse will learn the desired behaviors while under the influence of the medications. Some medications, such as diazepam, can have animistic properties. Sometimes anxiolytics and tranquilizers, such as benzodiazepines, lower thresholds for aggression.

Owners should always be advised if a drug is being used off-label and what are the possible side effects and contraindications.

Alternative Drugs!!navigator!!

  • Modipher EQ is a commercially available synthetic pheromone reported to prevent/reduce anxiety and fearful reactions if administered before exposure to the anxiety/fear-eliciting situations
  • Synthetic progestins are used off-label to sedate, calm, and lower libido to facilitate training and showing horses. This raises a question of ethics. Synthetic progestins are not disallowed when used to regulate the estrus cycle of performance mares. The drugs, however, are usually banned for use in other performance horses

Follow-up ⬆ ⬇

Outline

FOLLOW-UP

Patient Monitoring!!navigator!!

  • Behavior modification programs frequently need to be adjusted
  • Veterinarians assuming partial or full responsibility for treatment of a behavior problem should instruct clients to contact them immediately if the behavior gets worse. Otherwise, follow-up contact is recommended by 2 weeks after initiating treatment procedures. Thereafter, frequency of contact depends on the individual problem and treatment
  • If medical problems have been ruled out or successfully treated and the horse continues to exhibit the problem behavior, the client should be advised to consult with a person qualified to deal with that specific problem
  • If the veterinarian refers the client to a nonveterinarian, it is still beneficial to contact the owner. Signs of a previously subclinical medical problem may become apparent
  • Follow-up information is valuable in assessing the success of treatment programs that the owner is using

Prevention/Avoidance!!navigator!!

  • Gradually introduce horses to novel environments and new tasks
  • Be cognizant of inadvertent reinforcement of unwanted behaviors
  • Inappropriate use of aversive stimuli in attempts to change behavior
  • Horses that have been successfully treated for fear-based behavior problems should periodically be exposed to the fear-eliciting stimulus to prevent “spontaneous recovery” of the fearful behaviors

Possible Complications!!navigator!!

  • Undetected underlying medical cause of the problem
  • Persistence of behavior after successful treatment of initial medical cause

Expected Course and Prognosis!!navigator!!

Highly variable—dependent on recognition of underlying medical problems, diagnosis of the behavior problem, temperament of the horse, management strategies, and abilities of owner, handler, trainer, and behavior expert.

Miscellaneous ⬆ ⬇

Outline

MISCELLANEOUS

Associated Conditions!!navigator!!

  • Medical problems, especially those causing pain
  • Fearful behavior

Suggested Reading ⬆ ⬇

Borchelt PL, Voith VL. Punishment. In: Voith VL, Borchelt PL, eds. Readings in Companion Animal Behavior. Trenton, NJ: Veterinary Learning Systems, 1996:72–80.

Domjan M. The Principles of Learning and Behavior: Active Learning Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006.

Goolsby HA, Brady HA, Prien DS. The off-label use of altrenogest in stallions: a survey. J Equine Vet Sci 2004;24:72–75.

Mansmann RA, Currie MC, Correa MT, et al. Equine behavior problems round farriery: foot pain in 11 horses. J Equine Sci 2011;31:44–48.

McGreevy P. Equine Behaviour: A Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists, 2e. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 2012.

Mills DS, McDonnell S. Domestic Horse: The Origins, Development, and Management of its Behaviour. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Waring GH. Horse Behavior, 2e. Norwich, NY: Noyes Publications/William Andrew Publishing, 2003.

Author(s) ⬆

Author: Victoria L. Voith

Consulting Editor: Victoria L. Voith