Table 33-2
- Decreased response to β-receptor stimulation (decreased heart rate response to catecholamines and exercise; baroreflex control of heart rate is decreased and contributes to impaired autoregulation of blood pressure)
- Stiffening of the myocardium (slows diastolic relaxation and impairs ventricular filling; maintenance of an adequate central blood volume becomes critical), arteries, and veins (postural hypotension is more likely with mild hypovolemia)
- Increased sympathetic nervous system activity
- Decreased parasympathetic nervous system activity
- Conduction system changes (atrial fibrillation)
- Defective ischemic preconditioning (the protective effect of angina is absent)