- Patient-related factors
- Pre-existing cardiopulmonary dysfunction
- Morbid obesity
- Low inspired oxygen concentration
- Hypoventilation
- Ventilation–perfusion mismatch
- Endobronchial intubation
- Atelectasis
- Capnothorax/pneumothorax
- Pulmonary embolization
- Reduced cardiac output
- Inferior vena cava compression
- Dysrhythmias
- Myocardial depression
- Hemorrhage
- Anemia
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