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MaaritVenermo

Lower Limb Ischaemia

Essentials

  • Acute lower limb ischaemia is in most cases caused by sudden obstruction of an artery due to an embolus or thrombosis. Rare causes that should be kept in mind include aortic dissection, thrombosis of a popliteal aneurysm and arterial injury (e.g. in knee dislocation).
  • Chronic lower limb ischaemia is a slowly progressing disease process that is usually caused by an obliterating arterial disease.
  • Acute lower limb ischaemia must be recognized and the patient immediately referred for further management.
  • Chronic lower limb ischaemia must be diagnosed and its severity (stage) assessed, as the severity of the condition will determine management approach.
    • Mild ischaemia is asymptomatic, but is suggestive of an increased overall cardiovascular risk.
    • Moderate ischaemia causes intermittent claudication which, as such, is a benign but troublesome complaint. Claudication may be treated conservatively, but if the condition threatens the work or functional capacity of the patient, a referral to a vascular surgeon is indicated.
    • Chronic limb-threatening ischaemia manifests itself as pain at rest and may lead to a non-healing chronic leg ulcer and eventually to gangrene. Patients with severe limb ischaemia require urgent referral to a vascular surgeon. If limb ischaemia is complicated by an infection or if a gangrene has developed fast, an emergency referral is indicated.
  • If ischaemia is suspected it should be verified by measuring the ankle and brachial pressures with Doppler ultrasonography in all suspected cases of ischaemia. Examination of the patient, see Doppler Stethoscopy in Diagnostics.
  • A patient suffering from lower extremity ischaemia always has atherosclerosis also elsewhere than in the arteries of the lower extremities (ASO). Consequently, the prevention of coronary heart disease and ischaemic cerebrovascular disorders should be taken care of by controlling the risk factors (hypertension, dyslipidaemia, smoking, diabetes). This has the greatest impact on the patient's prognosis.

Signs and symptoms of chronic ischaemia Diagnosis of Arterial Disease of the Lower Extremities with Duplex Ultrasonography

  • In all stages of ischaemia, the patient will complain of cold feet and the skin is cold to touch.
  • Intermittent claudication: repeated pain in the lower limbs, usually in the calves, which develop during walking. Pain is relieved by a rest of 5-15 minutes, after which the patient is again able to walk the same distance.
    • The severity of intermittent claudication does not correlate with the stage of the disease. Of the patients with critical ischaemia, 50% present with no previous history of intermittent claudication; the mobilisation of many elderly patients is very limited.
    • In Leriche's syndrome the occlusion is situated in the distal aorta, and the patient will have claudication pain in both limbs up to the buttocks. Men may also have erectile dysfunction.
    • Occlusion at the iliac artery results in thigh and calf claudication. Occlusion at the superficial femoral artery leads to claudication in the calf, and popliteal occlusion to foot numbness during exercise.
  • Leg pain at rest, which is relieved by standing upright or hanging the limb over the edge of the bed, is suggestive of severe ischaemia; pain in the foot, ankle brachial index (ABI) often < 0.5.
  • Ischaemic tissue damage: necrosed areas or ulcers which may be dry and localised or become infected and may, at the worst, lead to a septic infection.
    • In patients with diabetes, 10% of all tissue damage is of pure ischaemic origin and 50% of combined neuropathic and ischaemic origin. A warm and dry neuropathic skin may mislead the clinical assessment. It is therefore safest to presume skin damage to be of ischaemic origin until proven otherwise.
  • Palpation for foot pulses
    • First-line examination. The arteries to palpate are the dorsalis pedis artery and the posterior tibial artery.
    • Oedema will hamper the palpation.
    • The examiner's own capillary pulse may interfere with the palpation.
  • If both the dorsalis pedis artery and the posterior tibial artery can definitely be palpated, significant arterial stenosis is improbable. An inconclusive finding is always an indication for a Doppler study.
  • Measurement of peripheral pressure and ankle brachial index (ABI)
    • The measurement of the peripheral pressure with the Doppler technique (see Doppler Stethoscopy in Diagnostics; video Measurement of Ankle Pressure and Abi) is the most important diagnostic tool. ABI is calculated by dividing the ankle pressure by the brachial pressure. The result will be indicative also of the severity of the disease. The measurement of the ankle pressure will usually suffice in general practice; the normal ABI is > 0.9. The pulse usually is not palpable if ABI < 0.7.
    • At the threshold value of 0.9, the sensitivity and specificity of ABI is about 95%. ABI of 0.9-0.7 is usually indicative of mild ischaemia, ABI 0.7-0.4 of moderate ischaemia and ABI < 0.4 of severe ischaemia.
    • ABI > 1.3 is indicative of incompressible arteries due to mediasclerosis, and the measurement will yield no information about the presence of ischaemia. Mediasclerosis is common in persons with diabetes.
    • ABI < 0.9 and ABI > 1.3 are also associated with an increased overall cardiovascular risk.

Conservative treatment of intermittent claudication Dressings and Topical Agents for Arterial Leg Ulcers, Treatment of Hypertension in Peripheral Arterial Disease, Beta-Adrenergic Blocking Agents and Intermittent Claudication, Cilostazol for Peripheral Arterial Disease, Antiplatelet Agents for Intermittent Claudication, Lipid-Lowering Pharmacotherapy for Lower Limb Ischaemia, Pentoxifylline for Intermittent Claudication, Smoking Cessation as Treatment for Intermittent Claudication, Exercise for Intermittent Claudication

  • Cessation of smoking
    • Cessation of smoking is the most important single measure in conservative management, and it will slow down the disease progress.
    • If the patient continues to smoke, the risk of amputation will increase. The patient should be advised to choose between “cigarettes or legs”.
  • Exercise
    • The patient should be advised to walk for an hour every day.
    • If leg pain develops, the patient should rest and then continue walking.
    • Results should be evident after about 3 months.
    • However, an exercise regime is usually not effective in patients who develop claudication after walking less than 50 metres or if the symptom is caused by stenosis of the iliac artery (femoral pulse in the groin is absent).
  • Drug treatment
    • Aspirin 100 mg daily or clopidogrel 75 mg once daily
      • An antithrombotic drug reduces the number of cardiovascular events and after vascular reconstruction reduces the number of new occlusions.
    • The combination of ASA 100 mg once daily and rivaroxaban 2.5 mg twice daily reduces cardiovascular events and is indicated in intermittent claudication patients who have also coronary artery disease, provided that the patient's risk of bleeding is not increased. Warfarin and low-molecular heparin are of no benefit in the treatment of chronic lower limb ischaemia.
    • Lipid-lowering medication. The progression of co-existing coronary heart disease may be slowed down with statins. Moreover, statins are also likely to slow down the progression of peripheral arterial obstructive disease (PAOD). As a rule, statin medication is always started, with LDL concentration of < 1.4 mmol/l as the target. A statin also lengthens the intermittent claudication distance.
    • The efficacy of pentoxiphylline has not been established. The clinical response is either of short duration, slight or insignificant.
    • Vitamin E has no effect on intermittent claudication.
    • A selective beta-blocker may usually be used with no adverse effects, unless the patient has critical ischaemia. A beta-blocker may be indicated for the treatment of coronary heart disease or hypertension. The choice of an ACE inhibitor as an antihypertensive agent in PAOD is justified, as it will also have a beneficial effect on other co-existing vascular diseases.
    • Tight glucose control in diabetes will reduce vascular complications. The target is HbA1c< 53 mmol/mol (< 7%).
  • Foot care
    • Particularly important in patients with diabetes; a dusky or discoloured heel is at risk of developing an ulcer, and the heel must be protected against pressure.
    • The patient must avoid trauma to the foot as well as too cold or too hot baths.
    • In order to reach and maintain good treatment results, a patient with diabetes should wear specialist footwear (moulded inserts, custom made shoes etc.) at all times to relieve pressure on the feet.

Surgical management of chronic ischaemia with intermittent claudication Bypass Surgery for Chronic Lower Limb Ischaemia, Exercise for Intermittent Claudication, Endovascular Revascularisation Versus Conservative Management for Intermittent Claudication

  • Intermittent claudication, induced by chronic ischaemia, is a troublesome complaint but seldom poses a serious risk. Risks arise from co-existent coronary heart disease and cerebral vascular disease, which determine the patient's prognosis.
  • Initially, the treatment of PAOD should consist mainly of conservative management, i.e. "Stop smoking and keep walking". Using crutches when walking significantly increases walking distance and improves exercising.
  • Walking 3 times a week for an hour at a time is a basic guideline in the treatment of patients with intermittent claudication.
  • Where intermittent claudication threatens the patient's work or functional capacity, vascular surgery should be considered.
    • The choice between an endovascular procedure and surgical revascularisation is made individually for each patient according to the results of imaging studies.
    • In patients with PAOD, percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) is a simple and effective treatment form, and a vascular surgeon should be consulted about the feasibility of the procedure in patients whose symptoms worsen. Proximal occlusions should be identified and treated even if they are only mildly symptomatic. Proximal occlusions are typical in persons who smoke and distal occlusions in patients with diabetes.
  • Prognosis in chronic ischaemia: deterioration in 25% of cases, revascularisation in 5% of cases and amputation in 1-2% of cases.

Chronic limb-threatening ischaemia Prostanoids for Critical Limb Ischaemia

  • The term critical ischaemia is used to denote the worsening of chronic ischaemia leading to the threat of gangrene in the lower extremity. Symptoms include rest pain and/or gangrene or an incurable ulcer in the foot area.
  • Should be suspected if a leg ulcer shows no signs of improvement in two weeks. A typical sign of ischaemia is distal gangrene ("toe infarct") as well as an ulcer outside the usual pressure areas, which are the heel and ball of the foot. An ulcer must not be treated blindly, and the cause of the problem should be established.
  • The limb will feel cool or cold to touch and have abnormal colouring.
  • 50% of patients with chronic limb-threatening ischaemia have diabetes.
  • The patient may perceive the ischaemia as numbness.
  • Concomitant deep venous insufficiency and a venous ulcer may make the diagnosis difficult. It should be kept in mind that in the background there may be insufficiency of both arterial and venous circulation, and ABI should be measured in a patient with a leg ulcer as well.
  • Ischaemia should be considered critical if
    • the patient has severe pain during the night, when at rest
    • the patient has foot gangrene or a foot ulcer that does not improve, and the ankle brachial index (ABI) is < 0.85. In a patient with diabetes, the reading taken with a Doppler stethoscope may be falsely high, but the presence of ischaemia will be revealed by a faint, monophasic flow signal.
  • Chronic limb-threatening ischaemia requires urgent by-pass surgery or extensive endovascular recanalisation in order to avoid amputation (above or below knee).
  • If severe ischaemia is suspected, the patient should be referred without delay, even as an emergency case, to a vascular surgery unit where all potentially mobile patients will either undergo angiography or immediate vascular reconstruction.
  • Chronic limb-threatening ischaemia is often associated with long occlusions in the thigh and leg arteries. The patients are often elderly and have multiple co-existing illnesses and poor life expectancy. However, an attempt should be made to salvage the limb even in elderly patients if the choice is between independent living and amputation followed by institutional care.
  • Primary amputation is carried out in patients in poor general health who no longer are able to mobilise independently and in cases where the gangrenous tissue covers at least half of the foot.
  • A patient who has undergone amputation due to ischaemia is not likely to learn to walk with a prosthesis, and reconstructive vascular surgery should therefore be the management of choice whenever possible.

Symptoms and diagnosis of acute ischaemia

  • Acute limb ischaemia may be caused by an acute thrombotic occlusion of a pre-existing atherosclerotic artery (acute-on-chronic) (40% of cases), by reocclusion of a previous vascular reconstruction site (20%) or by an embolus (40%) which is in most cases of cardiac origin.
  • Symptoms and findings
    • The rule of the "six P's": pain, pallor, pulselessness, paraesthesia, paralysis, poikilothermy
    • The affected limb may also feel colder to the touch than the unaffected side. A distinct line between the cold and warm zones may be evident on the skin.
    • If the foot is cyanotic or there is motor and/or sensory loss (test the dorsiflexion of the foot and toes), circulation must be restored within 6 hours.
  • Diagnosis
    • Embolic occlusion has an acute onset. The primary cause is often atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction etc.
    • The onset of acute-on-chronic ischaemia is slower. The patient often has a history of intermittent claudication and the other limb is also affected by PAOD.
    • Massive iliofemoral venous thrombosis must be borne in mind in differential diagnosis; the signs and symptoms include limb oedema, cyanosis and venous congestion.
  • If the entire limb is cyanotic and stiff, emergency above-knee amputation must be carried out in order to save the patient's life.

Surgical treatment of acute and critical ischaemia Surgery Versus Thrombolysis for Initial Management of Acute Limb Ischaemia

  • Acute ischaemia requires urgent hospitalisation.
    • The treatment of acute-on-chronic ischaemia is in most cases intra-arterial thrombolytic therapy with tPA (tissue-type plasminogen activator). After the fresh thrombus has been lysed, endovascular surgery or vascular reconstruction is often needed in order to correct the cause of the occlusion.
    • Embolectomy is the first-line treatment in case of an embolus. If needed, it can also be carried out under local anaesthesia even if the patient is elderly or in poor general health. Intra-arterial thrombolysis is an alternative treatment approach. If a differential diagnosis cannot be made, thrombosis should be considered as the cause of acute ischaemia.
    • After surgical treatment, an angiography should be readily performed to verify successful treatment
  • Angiographic studies may be carried out during the initial phase, provided that the mobility and sensation of the toes and ankle are normal, the ankle pressure is > 30 mmHg measured with a Doppler stethoscope and no cyanosis or muscle tenderness is present. If the foot is cyanotic or the motor function impaired, circulation must be restored immediately with emergency surgery.

    References

    • European Stroke Organisation., Tendera M, Aboyans V et al. ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of peripheral artery diseases: Document covering atherosclerotic disease of extracranial carotid and vertebral, mesenteric, renal, upper and lower extremity arteries: the Task Force on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Peripheral Artery Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2011;32(22):2851-906. [PubMed]
    • Girolami B, Bernardi E, Prins MH, Ten Cate JW, Hettiarachchi R, Prandoni P, Girolami A, Büller HR. Treatment of intermittent claudication with physical training, smoking cessation, pentoxifylline, or nafronyl: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1999 Feb 22;159(4):337-45. [PubMed]
    • Vuorisalo S, Venermo M, Lepäntalo M. Treatment of diabetic foot ulcers. J Cardiovasc Surg (Torino) 2009;50(3):275-91. [PubMed]