Definition

• Vocalization that is uncontrollable, excessive, at inappropriate times of day or night or that disrupts owners, neighbors or other animals.
• In night-time waking, the pet wakes during the night, does not fall asleep at bedtime, or awakens early leading to disruption of owner's sleep.

Pathophysiology

• Varies with cause.
• Barking may be normal canine communication (social, threat, warning, care-soliciting) but unacceptable to owners.
• Owner responses may reinforce or increase anxiety (punishment).
• Cats are crepuscular, so early morning waking may be normal.
• May be due to medical conditions that cause anxiety, discomfort, irritability, or altered sleep-wake cycles.
• Hearing decline may be associated with increased vocalization.
• CDS can lead to sleep disturbances, anxiety and excessive vocalization.
• Night waking may be due to a change in schedule, environment, or activity, especially in senior pets that are more sensitive to change.

Systems Affected

• Behavioral
• Diseases of other systems may cause or contribute to signs

Genetics

N/A

Incidence/Prevalence

Unknown

Geographic Distribution

N/A

Signalment

Signs

Causes

• Vocalization and night waking: Medical-gastrointestinal, metabolic (renal, hepatic), urogenital, CNS disorders, CDS, hyperadrenocorticism or hypothyroidism (dog), hyperthyroidism (cat), pain, sensory decline
• Vocalization
  • Anxiety or conflict
• Normal for individual or breed
  • Alarm barking-response to novel stimuli
• Territorial-warning or guarding
  • Owner inadvertently reinforces
• Also reinforced each time stimulus retreats
  • Distress vocalization, e.g., howl or whine may be related to separation from social group
• Growl-associated with agonistic displays
  • Stereotypic behaviors-dogs
• Mating/Sexual (cats)
  • Night waking
• Normal crepuscular rhythm-cat
  • Changes in routine and/or environment-insufficient enrichment/scheduling
• Owner inadvertently reinforces
  • Hyperactivity/Hyperkinesis-dog
  • Mating/Sexual-cat

Risk Factors

• Increasing age
• Changes in schedule or environment

Differential Diagnosis

Sleep disorders

CBC/Biochemistry/Urinalysis

To determine if underlying medical cause

Other Laboratory Tests

• T₄-senior cats
• Rule out hypothyroidism and hyperadrenocorticism in dogs

Imaging

To rule out medical/neurologic if indicated

Diagnostic Procedures

• Behavioral diagnosis based on history; observation of pet, owner, and their interactions; video if available.
• BAER if indicated to rule out auditory decline.
• Endoscopy and biopsy if GI suspected.

Pathologic Findings

N/A

Appropriate Health Care

If any medical issues

Nursing Care

If any medical issues

Activity

Insure behavioral needs are adequately met including sufficient daytime enrichment and programming.

Diet

• Feed from toys (work for food)
• Timed feeders to schedule feedings

Client Education

Individualize for the pet, home, and problem

Behavior Modification

• Identify and minimize or avoid exposure to inciting stimuli.
• Provide a quiet and calm environment for security, rest and sleep.
• Structure all interactions (i.e., calm sit or down for all rewards).
• Reward-based training to teach calm/settle on cue (“Sit,” “Down,” “Mat”).
• Response substitution-Use settle commands to train alternative acceptable behaviour.
• Head halter may provide more immediate control to quiet and calm.
• Eliminate any owner reinforcement.
• Owner anxiety, verbal reprimands, and punishment may increase anxiety and potentiate barking.
• Desensitize and counter-condition-expose the pet to the inciting stimulus at a low level (under the response threshold) and pair a favored reward (e.g., food treat) with each exposure to change the emotional response. Gradually progress to more intense stimulus.
• Devices that disrupt or inhibit vocalization may help to achieve quiet, which can then be reinforced; however, aversive techniques may increase anxiety.

Environmental Modification

Modify environment to avoid or minimize exposure to stimuli that incite vocalization or wake the pet, e.g., covered crate, quiet room, thunder cap, classical music, white noise.

Surgical Considerations

N/A

Drug(s) Of Choice

• Short-term or as-needed for situations of anxiety or for inducing sleep
• Benzodiazepines: dog, alprazolam 0.02–0.1 mg/kg; clonazepam 0.05–0.25 mg/kg; diazepam 0.5–2.2 mg/kg; cat, oxazepam 0.2–0.5 mg/kg; alprazolam 0.125–0.25 mg per cat; clonazepam 0.02–0.2 mg/kg
• Trazodone: dog, 3–12 mg/kg
• Melatonin: dog and cat, 3–6 mg (1.5–12 mg)
• For ongoing therapy for chronic anxiety or compulsive disorders: clomipramine (TCA): dog, 1–3 mg/kg PO q12h, cat, 0.5 mg/kg PO q24h; fluoxetine or paroxetine (SSRIs): dog, 1–2 mg/kg PO q24h, cat, 0.5 mg/kg PO q24h.
• Natural products that might be used adjunctively for anxiety: Adaptil, Feliway, l-theanine, alpha-casozepine, Harmonease, SAMe or aromatherapy (lavender).
• For CDS: selegiline and cognitive supplements (see Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome).

Contraindications

Review contraindications and side effects for each drug used.

Precautions

• Caution with drugs that might sedate in elderly pets.
• Monitor for undesirable behavioral effects.
• Avoid anticholinergic drugs in pets with CDS.

Possible Interactions

Do not use SSRIs and TCAs together with MAOIs such as selegiline and amitraz and use cautiously or avoid with buspirone and tramadol.

Alternative Drugs

• Concurrent sedation with acepromazine 0.5–2.2 mg/kg might be considered but it is not anxiolytic and may increase noise sensitivity and vocalization.
• For a less sedating anxiolytic consider buspirone at 0.5–1 mg/kg (q8–12h in dogs and q12h in cats).
• Analgesics for pain control.
• Gabapentin dog 10–30 mg/kg q8–12h, cat 5–20 mg/kg q8–24h.

Patient Monitoring

Modify the program based on response to therapy.

Prevention/Avoidance

• Train calm and settle on cue (sit, down, go to mat).
• Predictable interactions, e.g., insure calm sit or down before any reward given.
• Reward desirable, do not punish undesirable behavior.
• Socialize and habituate pet when young to a wide range of people, pets, stimuli, and environments.
• Provide enrichment and scheduling to meet needs.

Possible Complications

• Night-time waking can lead to fatigue, increased irritability, and possibly aggression.
• Both night waking and vocalization can be particularly distressing to the pet owner's health and well-being and greatly weaken the bond.

Expected Course and Prognosis

• Variable-based on diagnosis, environment, pet, and owner expectations.
• Most can be improved over time but might not eliminated.

Associated Conditions

CDS

Age-Related Factors

Increased anxiety and night waking more common in senior pets.

Zoonotic Potential

None but sleep disruption and anxiety in pets can contribute to sleep disruption and anxiety in the owners.

Pregnancy/Fertility/Breeding

N/A

Synonyms

Sleep disturbances

See Also

• Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome
• Compulsive Disorders-Cats
• Compulsive Disorders-Dogs
• Separation Distress Syndrome

Abbreviations

• BAER = brainstem auditory evoked response
• CDS = cognitive dysfunction syndrome
• CNS = central nervous system
• MAOI = monoamine oxide inhibitors
• SAMe = S-adenosyl-L-methionine-tosylate disulfate
• SSRI = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
• T₄ = thyroxine
• TCA = tricyclic antidepressant