The autonomic nervous system (ANS) (Fig. 186-1) innervates the entire neuraxis and permeates all organ systems. It regulates bp, heart rate, sleep, and bladder and bowel function. It operates automatically, so that its full importance becomes recognized only when ANS function is compromised, resulting in dysautonomia.
Key features of the ANS are summarized in Table 186-1. Responses to sympathetic or parasympathetic activation often have opposite effects; partial activation of both systems allows for simultaneous integration of multiple body functions.
Consider disorders of autonomic function in the differential diagnosis of pts with unexplained orthostatic hypotension (OH), sleep dysfunction, impotence, bladder dysfunction (urinary frequency, hesitancy, or incontinence), diarrhea, constipation, upper gastrointestinal symptoms (bloating, nausea, vomiting of old food), impaired lacrimation, or altered sweating (hyperhidrosis or hypohidrosis).
OH is often the most disabling feature of autonomic dysfunction. Syncope results when the drop in bp impairs cerebral perfusion (Chap. 50. Syncope). Other manifestations of impaired baroreflexes are supine hypertension, a fixed heart rate regardless of posture, postprandial hypotension, and a high nocturnal bp. Many pts with OH have a preceding diagnosis of hypertension. Most causes of OH are not neurologic in origin; these must be distinguished from neurogenic causes.
Approach to the Patient: Autonomic Nervous System Disorders The first step in the evaluation of OH is to exclude treatable causes. History should include a review of medications that may cause OH (e.g., diuretics, antihypertensives, antidepressants, ethanol, narcotics, insulin, dopamine agonists, barbiturates, and calcium channel-blocking agents); precipitation of OH by medications may also be the first sign of an underlying autonomic disorder. History may reveal an underlying cause for symptoms (e.g., diabetes, Parkinson's disease) or identify causative mechanisms (e.g., cardiac pump failure, reduced intravascular volume). Any relationship of symptoms to meals (splanchnic pooling), standing on awakening in the morning (intravascular volume depletion), ambient warming (vasodilatation), or exercise (muscle arteriolar vasodilatation) should be sought. Physical examination includes measurement of supine and standing pulse and bp. OH is defined as a sustained drop in systolic (≥20 mmHg) or diastolic (≥10 mmHg) bp within 2-3 min of standing. In nonneurogenic causes of OH (such as hypovolemia), the bp drop is accompanied by a compensatory increase in heart rate of >15 beats/min. A clue to neurogenic OH is aggravation or precipitation of OH by autonomic stressors (such as a meal, hot tub/hot bath, and exercise). Neurologic evaluation should include a mental status examination Autonomic testing: Autonomic function tests are helpful when history and physical examination findings are inconclusive, to detect subclinical involvement, or to follow the course of an autonomic disorder. Heart rate variation with deep breathing is a measure of vagal function. The Valsalva maneuver measures changes in heart rate and bp while a constant expiratory pressure of 40 mmHg is maintained for 15 s. The Valsalva ratio is the maximum heart rate during the maneuver divided by the minimum heart rate following the maneuver; the ratio reflects cardiovagal function. Tilt-table beat-to-beat bp measurements in the supine, 70° tilt, and tilt-back positions can be used to evaluate orthostatic failure in bp control in pts with unexplained syncope. Most pts with syncope do not have autonomic failure; the tilt-table test can be used to diagnose vasovagal syncope with high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility. Other tests of autonomic function include the quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART) and the thermoregulatory sweat test (TST). The QSART provides quantitative measure of regional autonomic function mediated by acetylcholine (ACh)-induced sweating. The TST provides a qualitative measure of sweating in response to a standardized elevation of body temperature. For a more complete discussion of autonomic function tests, see Chap. 454, HPIM-19. |
