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- Left heart disorders: Elevations of left-ventricular end-diastolic and pulmonary capillary wedge pressures lead to dyspnea related to stimulation of pulmonary receptors and hypoxemia from ventilation-perfusion mismatch.
- Pulmonary vascular disorders: Pulmonary emboli, primary pulmonary arterial hypertension, and pulmonary vasculitis stimulate pulmonary receptors via increased pulmonary artery pressures. Hyperventilation and hypoxemia also may contribute to dyspnea.
- Pericardial diseases: Constrictive pericarditis and pericardial tamponade cause increased intracardiac and pulmonary arterial pressures, leading to dyspnea.
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